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Samenvatting Working Through Conflict
Complete en uitgebreide samenvatting (32 pagina's) van het boek Working Through Conflict voor de cursus Conflicthantering
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Voorbeeld van de inhoud
Samenvatting: Working Through ConflictIntroduction
Conflict offers a mixture of the good, the bad, and the uncertain. The key
to working through conflict is not to minimize its disadvantages, or even to
emphasize its positive functions, but to accept both and to try to
understand how conflicts move in destructive of productive directions. This
calls for a careful analysis of both the specific behaviors and the
interaction patterns involved in conflict and the forces that influence these
patterns.
1.1 conflict defined
Conflict is the interaction of interdependent people who perceive
incompatibility and the possibility of interference from others as a result of
this incompatibility. The most important feature of conflict is that it is a
type of human interaction. People in conflict perceive that there is some
existing incompatibility with others and that this incompatibility may
prompt others to interfere with their own desires, goals, personal comforts,
or communication preferences. The key word here is perceived.
Communication is important because it is the key to shaping and
maintaining the perceptions that guide conflict behavior. Conflict
interaction is influenced by the interdependence of the parties. The
greater the interdependence among people, the more significant the
consequences of their behaviors are for each other.
1.2 Arenas for conflict
This book examines a broad range of conflicts in four general settings. One
important conflict arena is the interpersonal relationship. These conflicts
include those between spouses, siblings, friends, co-workers, supervisors,
employees. A second important genre of conflicts are those that occur in
groups or teams. This arena includes families, work teams, small
businesses, classes or clubs. A third important arena for conflict is the
organization. Many relationships and groups are embedded in
organizations. Finally the book examines conflicts that occur in intergroup
settings. In this case the focus is on individuals as representatives of social
groups rather than as unique and special individuals. This arena includes
conflicts among people who represent different gender, ethnic, or cultural
groups. One obvious difference between the arenas is the number of
people typically involved in a conflict. As the number of people involved in
a conflict increases, important features of the interaction change as well.
These arenas of conflict also differ in the type of interdependence that
typically exists among the parties. Although these arenas differ in
important ways, they are similar in one important sense: in all of them
interaction is central to conflict.
1.3 Productive and destructive conflict interaction
Productive and destructive conflict interaction: People often associate
conflict with negative outcomes. However, there are times when conflicts
must be addressed regardless of the apprehension they create. When
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,differences exist and the issues are important, suppressing conflict is often
more dangerous than facing it. Productive conflict interaction depends of
flexibility. In constructive conflicts, members engage in a wide variety of
behaviors ranging from coercion and threat to negotiation, joking, and
relaxation in reach an acceptable solution. In contrast, parties in
destructive conflicts are likely to be much less flexible because their goals
is more narrowly defined. They are trying to defeat each other. Destructive
conflict interaction is likely to result in uncontrolled escalation of prolonged
attempts to avoid issues. In productive conflicts, all parties belief they can
attain important goals, it results in a solution satisfactory to all and
produces a general feeling that the parties have gained something. Most
conflicts exhibit both productive and destructive interactions.
1.4 Judgments about conflict outcomes
The most obvious and most desirable outcome measure would give an
objective account of the gains and losses that result for each party. If
these can be assessed in an objective manner for each party, they can
then be compared to determine things such as who won, how fair the
outcome of the conflict was, and whether a better outcome was possible.
We can determine relative gains and losses in more or less objective terms
if the outcome can be stated in numerical terms. Determining gains and
losses is more difficult for outcomes that cannot be reduced to numerical
terms.
A second way to evaluate conflicts in terms of the level of satisfaction
people feel about the resolution. One definition of an integrative resolution
is the solution that all parties are most satisfied with. This criterion gets
around some of the limitations of objective outcome measures because we
can always determine parties’ perceptions and evaluations, even when
there is no direct measure of outcomes.
Two other judgments that can be made about conflict outcomes concern
their fairness, or social justice. Distributive justice refers to the fair
allocation of resources among two or more recipients. Procedural justice
is concerned with the fairness of the process by which decisions are made
to resolve the conflict. Concerning the distributive justice Thompson
distinguished three value systems: the equality rule, the equity rule, or
proportionality of contributions principle and the needs-based rule.
Chapter 1: communication and conflict
1.1 A model of effective conflict management
Walton describes in his book a simple yet powerful model of conflict
management that reflects insights on conflict management. The model
views conflict in terms of two broad phases: a differentiation phase
followed by an integration phase. In differentiation, parties raise the
conflict issues and spend sufficient time and energy clarifying positions,
pursuing the reasons behind those positions and acknowledging their
differences. In the integration phases parties begin to acknowledge
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,common ground, explore possible options, and move toward some
solution. Sometimes one that meets everyone’s needs, but sometimes
simply one that they can live with. If integration is not completely
successful, the conflict may cycle back through a new differentiation
phase.
Adequate differentiation is necessary for constructive resolution. Without a
clear statement of each party’s position, finding a satisfactory result is a
hit-or-miss venture. Unless they understand their points of difference, they
do not have the knowledge required to find a workable solution. Although
differentiation is necessary for constructive conflict resolution, it can also
nourish destructive tendencies. Differentiation surfaces disagreements
and makes them the center of attention. A second, equally damaging
pattern in conflict interaction is overly rigid avoidance. Parties may
sometimes fear the consequences of open conflict so much that they
refuse to acknowledge the conflict and avoid anything that might spark a
confrontation. Even when both parties know there is a conflict, they may
simply avoid discussing it, even if there is palpable discomfort. The
problem with this approach is that parties may never realize their own
potential for finding creative solutions to important problems. Trying to
avoid conflicts at all costs, parties may quickly accept a solution that
leaves them feeling lukewarm and dissatisfied after the fact.
Differentiation is often threatening of anxiety-ridden, and this makes
sticking to the straight and narrow course toward integration difficult.
Threat and anxiety tends to produce rigidity that causes people to cling
inflexibly to patterns of interaction that emerge during differentiation.
Parties in conflict are faced with anxiety-inducing conditions that work
against flexibility and adaptability. These conditions are the result of the
inherent demands of differentiation. The conditions that produce anxiety
for people are those pressures that work towards radical escalation:
1. An initial personalization of the conflict
2. The stress of acknowledging opposing stands
3. Hostile and emotional statements
4. uncertainty about the outcomes of the conflict
5. heightened awareness of the consequences of not reaching a resolution
Differentiation is a necessary but anxiety-provoking process that people
face during any conflict. If parties pursue issues and work through the
demands of differentiation without rigidly adhering to counterproductive
interaction pattern, there is a clear promise of innovation and of finding an
integrative solution to the conflict. The pressures toward escalation are
formidable, however and the anxiety of differentiation can promote rigidity
of behavior, resulting in either spiraling conflict or flight from the issue.
Taking the middle path: moving toward integration. The key of effective
conflict management is to achieve the benefits of differentiation and to
make a clean transition to integration, which sets the conflict on an
entirely different course. First, it is important to ensure that differences
have surfaced as completely as possible. A second condition that
promotes a transition to integration is when parties realize that other will
not give into them of be pushed into an inferior settlement. In many cases,
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,a third party can be a great help in making the transition from
differentiation to integration. People sometimes become so involved in the
conflict that they have neither the motivation nor the insight to take the
necessary actions.
One key to moving through differentiation and integration is the ability to
recognize destructive and productive patterns. It is often difficult to
determine when conflict interaction has turned in a destructive direction.
Once in these destructive cycles, the rigidity that sets in may prevent
parties from pulling out. It is important to be constantly on the alert for
signs of destructive patterns and to act quickly to alter them. Developing
the ability to recognize protracted, destructive spirals is a key conflict
management skill because such insight is the first step in taking some
control over the conflict.
1.2 Properties of conflict interaction
Four properties of conflict interaction offer keys to understanding the
development and consequences of conflicts:
1. Conflict is constituted and sustained by moves and countermoves
during interaction
2. Patterns of behavior in conflict tend to perpetuate themselves
3. Conflict interaction is influenced by and in turn affects relationships
4. Conflict interaction is influenced by the context in which it occurs.
Property 1: conflicts emerge as a series of actions and reactions. When
parties try to deal with incompatibilities, the way in which their action
mesh plays an important role in the direction the conflict takes. In this
sense, conflict is emergent: it emerges through the unfolding actions and
reactions of the parties. The behavioral sequence of initiation-response-
counterresponse is the basic building block of conflicts. Moves and
countermoves depend on participants’ ability and willingness to exert
power. Power can be defined as the capacity to act effectively. Power
sometimes takes the form of outward strength, status, money, or allies,
but these are only the most obvious sources of power. There are many
other sources such as time, attractiveness, and persuasive ability that
operate in a much more subtle fashion. The balance of power often tips
the scale in a productive or destructive direction. If a party perceives that
he or she can dominate others, there is little incentive to compromise.
Only when all participants have at least some power is the conflict likely to
move in a productive direction. For conflicts to maintain a constructive
direction, there should be a balance of power. The weaker parties must
build their power: the stronger ones must share theirs, or at least not use
it to force or dominate the weaker ones.
Property 2: Conflict interaction acquires a momentum of its own through
these self-reinforcing cycles. Such cycles tend to take a definite direction,
toward escalation, toward avoidance and suppression, or toward
productive work on resolving the conflict. Parties’ actions in conflict are
based on their perceptions of each other and on whatever theories or
beliefs each holds about the other’s reactions. Because these estimates
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,are only intuitive predictions, they may be wrong to some extent. The
estimates will be revised as the conflicts unfolds, and this revision will
largely determine what direction the conflict takes. The most striking thing
about this predictive process is the extraordinary difficulties it poses when
we attempt to understand the parties’ thinking. By acting on the basis of
their assumptions about the other, parties run the risk of eliciting the
response they assume will occur.
Property 3: It is easy to focus mainly on the substantive issues in a
conflict, on the problem and its proposed solutions. In fact, centering only
on issues and ignoring emotional aspects of a conflict has sometimes been
recommended as the best way to deal with conflicts. However, focusing on
the bare facts of the case can cause one to overlook the important effects.
Conflicts are often emotionally laden en tens. This is part because
participants are concerned about getting what they want, but it also stems
from the implications the conflict has for one party’s present and future
relationship to the other party. The relational aspect of communication is
critical because it affects both present and future interaction, it is not
surprising that is plays a critical role in generating the direction conflicts
take. Face-saving parties’ attempts to protect or repair their image to
others, has great potential to send conflicts into destructive spirals. People
in conflict often believe that if they move from a stated position of back
away from a set of demands, they will appear weak of vulnerable in the
eyes of the group. A second from of face-saving can prompt parties to
continually ignore or avoid an important conflict issue.
Property 4: One of the most robust characteristics of human interaction is
that it is strongly influenced by the contest in which it occurs. So it is with
conflict. Important elements of the context include the personal histories
of the parites and their relationship, the climate of the situation, and the
environment in which the conflict occurs. History is a complex and
important force in conflict. Each of us brings to a conflict a personal history
of previous experiences with relationships in general and with conflict in
particular. Research also suggests that our prior experience fosters conflict
styles, general tendencies to respond to conflicts in particular ways.
Another important part of personal history is our experience with the other
party. The second component that we will consider, climate, refers to the
general atmosphere surrounding a particular situation. Climates may be
threatening of safe, warm or cold. They are generated and sustained by
the parties to the conflict, as well as by the broader environment
surrounding the conflict. Climates are not fixed, but may vary, even within
a single conflict. The third element of context we will consider is the
outside environment related to the conflict. Environment is a very broad
term that revers to characteristics of the society and social unit that may
affect the conflict.
Chapter 2: The inner experience of conflict
2.1 The psychodynamic perspective
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, Freud and his followers portray the human mind as a reservoir of psychic
energy that is channeled into various activities. If it is not released through
one channel, psychic energy builds up pressure to be released through
another. The frustrations and uncertainties involved in conflict generate
two powerful impulses, the aggressive impulse and anxiety which we
must manage. The various ways in which these two forms of energy are
channeled play a critical role in conflict interaction because they
determine how people react to conflict. One strategy to attempt to
suppress aggressive drives, despite its benefits suppression can be a
double-edged sword. Suppressing a need is frustrating and can erupt more
violently later on. Also, when goals are suppressed, people may still be
driven by the need without realizing it. Actions may be guided by
unconscious drives or needs, and these may direct behavior in destructive
ways. A second strategy for dealing with aggression is to direct it toward
more vulnerable or acceptable targets than the actual source of
frustration. This process, displacement, is more likely when the actual
source of frustration is powerful of valued by the individual. Rather than
suffering the consequences of an attack on the actual source, people
attribute their frustrations to other parties so that their impulses can be
legitimized. In addition to aggressive impulses, anxiety is also a by-
product of conflict. Anxiety is an internal state of tension that arises when
we perceive impending danger. It arises when we believe our drives or
needs will be thwarted. Because conflicts involve perceived interference of
others, anxiety is likely to persist until there is some hope that an
agreement will be reached that meets each person’s needs. If there is little
reason for hope, of if the party suspects that others do not see their needs
as legitimate, then anxiety is likely to increase throughout the conflict.
Anxiety influences conflict interaction by causing members to be
excessively rigid and inflexible. The psychodynamic perspective has
generated several important insights into conflict interaction. The most
important achievement is its explanation of the role of impulses,
particularly aggression and anxiety, in conflicts. The idea that impulses
build up and can be redirected into other activities, including attacks on a
third person, is crucial to most conflict theories. The psychodynamic
perspective recognizes the importance of substitute activities,
displacement, scapegoating, and inflexibility in conflicts, and it allows
many subtle processes to be taken into account. The idea of unconscious
or subconscious motivation is also important. People do not always
understand what is driving their conflict behavior. Unconscious motivation
underscores the importance of helping members gain insight into their
behavior.
2.2 Emotion and conflict
Guerrero and La Valley and Butt and Choi discuss five points that are
important in understanding how emotion shapes conflict:
1. Emotions occur in reaction to stimuli that threaten to interrupt, impede,
or enhance one’s goals
2. The central constituent of emotional experience is positive or negative
affect.
3.Physiological changes usually accompany emotional experiences.
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