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Samenvatting ALLE literatuur voor Tentamen Psychological & Neurobiological Consequences of Child Abuse

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In dit document wordt de voorgeschreven literatuur voor het vak Pscyhological and Neurobiological Consequences of Child Abuse uitgebreid samengevat. Deze samenvatting bevat een duidelijke beschrijving van de ALLE artikelen, evenals extra informatie ter verduidelijking van de neurobiologische proces...

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Literature Psychological &
Neurological consequences of child
abuse & Neglect

,Background knowledge

Stress Response
When faced with a stressor, our bodies react with a very effective and what supposed to be a
temporary response. The stress response has two complementary parts (ANS and HPA-axis).
One has immediate effects, the other takes more time to kick in, but is longer lasting.
- Both parts are set in motion by the hypothalamus at the same time.

Autonomic Nervous System
1)When faced with a stressor:
- Amygdala alerts the hypothalamus
- The hypothalamus gets the message, and activates the sympathetic nervous system
(SNS), the mechanism we need for fight/flight response -- > in order to survive.
- In fight/flight response the nerve endings of the SNS release epinephrine and
norepinephrine -- > these NT provide immediate and quick action to meet our stressor in
fight/flight response.
o Epinephrine by nerve endings in adrenal gland
o Norepinephrine by nerve endings in
the rest of the body
Sympathetic Nervous system
- The system that is activated during the
stress response
- Your heart will accelerate, the bronchi of
lungs will dialate (-- > more oxygen),
glucose is available for energy, epinephrine
and norepinephrine is released by nerve
endings to speed your responses.
Parasympathetic Nervous system
- When the stress is over, the PNS kicks in, to
calm and relax -- > bring you back to
homeostasis

Amygdala -- > hypothalamus -- > activation SNS -- > nerve endings SNS release epinephrine and
norepinephrine (=NT)

Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis (HPA-axis)
2) When faces with a stressor
- This part of the stress response, which takes longer to kick in,
but stays longer, is also initiated by hypothalamus
- The hypothalamus sends corticotropin releasing hormone
(CRH) to the pituitary gland -- > it causes the pituitary
gland to release adrenal corticotropin hormone (ACTH).
- This travels through the bloodstream to the adrenal cortex (=
adrenal glands) and it takes about 10-15 sec. the adrenal
gland releases glucocorticoids (like cortisol).
o These work slowly, it takes minutes for them to be
released, but they last much longer than epinephrine
and norepinephrine.
- The hypothalamus also releases other stress hormones,
including vasopressin, oxytocin & prolactin.

Glucocorticoids (cortisol)
The adrenal glands release glucocorticoids (like cortisol) in response to a stressor, as part of the
HPA-axis.
- This are steroid hormones – and they act similar as Epinephrine/norepinephrine -- > but
slower
- Glucocorticoids increase the amount of calcium entering neurons -- > more NT released
o Neurons communicate by releasing NT into a synapse, where they cross over to the
post-synaptic receptors, where they bind to the receptors and communicate the
signal.
o The amount of NT released by the pre-synaptic neuron is dependent on the amount
of calcium that is able to enter the pre-synaptic neuron to free the NT.

, o Glucocorticoids increase the amount of neurotransmitters that are released -- > this
helps to produce extra vigilance and arousal during stress.
- They also help to store energy to mobilize it for use during stressful situations.

Control and Regulation of the HPA-axis
When you first perceive the threat, it is the amygdala that signaling that starts the HPA stress-
response.
- The amygdala starts signaling the hypothalamus -- > the stress response starts when the
amygdala starts releasing CRH.
But the amygdala is not the only part of the brain that controls this stress response.
- The brain, especially the limbic system, is composed of many feedback loops, which
regulate emotional responses and emotional memories.
- Hippocampus can also regulate the HPA-axis -- > it has receptors for glucocorticoids -- >
part of the feedback loop: it can signal back to the hypothalamus to slow down, or even
stop the release of CRH.
- ANS -- > can also influence the functioning of HPA-axis: anxiety feedback loop: the
amygdala gets the SNS going, the arouse in the SNS can signal the amygdala -- > the
anxiety feeds on itself. The PNS can also exercise power and control -- > it can work to
deactivate the amygdala and reduce anxiety.
When the threat is over, the PNS would calm you down, and return you to your normal
homeostatic state. The stress response is possible and adaptive. Easier to survive.

Part 2. Genes & Genotype
Your body is made up of many cells. Each cell is a copy of a single cell that divided itself to make
all of the cells in your body. Your DNA, genes and chromosomes work together to tell your body
how to form and function.
- A gene is the basic physical and functional unit of heredity in human cells (the building
blocks)-- > every person has two copies (alleles) of each gene, one from both parents. Once
you receive a pair, your genes divide and copy themselves until your body has enough
genes.
o Some genes act as instructions to make molecules, called proteins -- > proteins
decide what kind of physical characteristics you have ( genotype)
o However, many genes do not code for proteins, they code for RNA (no functions)
- Genes are made up of DNA = hereditary material in humans.
- Alleles are forms of the same gene with small differences in their sequences of DNA bases
-- > these differences contribute to each person’s unique physical features.
DNA
- DNA is the material that exists in every cell in your body that holds your genetic code.
o 99% of the DNA bases are identical in every person, just 1% in DNA makes you
unique.
o Most of the DNA is located in the cell nucleus (nuclear DNA), but a small amount is
found in the mitochondria (mitochondrial DNA).
- Information on DNA is stored as a code made up of four chemical bases. The sequence of
these bases determines the information available for building and maintaining an organism.
Like letters form words.
1. Adenine (A)
2. Guanine (G)
3. Cystocine (C)
4. Thymine (T)
- A & T and C & G pair up to form base pairs. Each base is also attached to sugar molecule
and phosphate molecule -- > together this makes up a nucleotide.
o This is like writing the manual: the base pairs creates the words in the instruction
manual of your own body.
- Nucleotide: two long strands that form a spiral. It is like a ladder, with the base pairs
forming the ladders rungs.
- Each strand of DNA can replicate itself – this is critical because when cells divide each new
cell needs to have an exact copy of the DNA present in the old cell.
Chromosome
- In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA is packaged into chromosomes. chromosome is made
up of DNA.

, - Humans should have 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 total). Chromosomes divide into 22
autosome pairs, and one pair of sex hormones (X and Y).

Genetic mutation
Genetic mutation occurs during cell division when your cells divide and replicate. When your cells
divide, your DNA gets copied. During this process, there is a lot of room for error because your
cells might skip a part. If you have an error in the copy (= genetic mutation), your DNA gives
your body the wrong directions. This might not change the function of your body, but it might that
a person isn’t able to function completely.
- Changes to a gene’s DNA sequence to produce something different
- Genetic mutations create permanent change to the DNA-sequence

In cellen van je lichaam zit erfelijke informatie opgeslagen, in de vorm van DNA. DNA bestaat uit
nucleotiden, welke bestaat uit nucleotide basen: A-T en C-G. In de volgorde waarin deze
baseparen voorkomen in je DNA, ligt alle erfelijke informatie opgeslagen. Chromosomen zijn
opgebouwd uit DNA en bevinden zich in de celkern en zijn dragers van de erfelijke informatie (=
genotype).

Genotype
De erfelijke informatie van iemand noemen we het genotype. Je genotype verandert niet.
Fenotype
Het fenotype is hoe je er van de buitenkant uitziet, wat merkbaar is van je genotype. Je fenotype
kan veranderen door omgeving (-- > haar blond verven).

Voor elke eigenschap heb je een gen, bv. voor haarkleur. Een allel is een versie van het gen:
bruin haar. Per gen heb je twee allelen, omdat chromosomen in paren voorkomen. Eén allel op het
ene chromosoom (moeder) en een op het andere chromosoom (vader).

Een allel kan dominant of recessief zijn. Als een allel dominant is, betekent dat dat slechts 1 van
de 2 allelen dominant hoeft te zijn om de dominante eigenschap in het fenotype te zien. Als een
allel recessief is, betekent dat dat beide versies van het allel recessief moeten zijn om zichtbaar te
zijn in het fenotype.

Polymorphism
The presence of two or more variant forms of a specific DNA sequence that can occur among
different individuals or populations. Little differences between people in the sequence of
nucleotides of a gen (-- > cause people to be different) which are the consequence of SNPS.

SNP = single nucleotide polymorphism
SNPS are the most common type of genetic variation among people. Each SNP represents a
difference single DNA building block, called nucleotide (composed of base pairs). SNPS occur
normally throughout a persons DNA.
- SNPS can act as biological markers helping scientists locate genes that are associated with
disease.

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