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Anomie theory (Merton) -> defines anomie as a state experienced only by some people (not by
whole society as Durkheim suggested). People who experience anomie do so because society has
certain cultural goals, and some are unable to reach them which poses as a strain. He defines strain
as wanting to reach a culture goal but not having legitimate means. The culture goals of American
society is the American dream, thus getting wealthy, material wealth, getting status…. However, can
this actually be reached? If you work minimum wage, you cannot really achieve this. That is when
you start feeling strains and might use illegitimate means.
In total, there are five reactions to anomie possible: Conformity (when you can reach culture goals
and do so with legitimate means, you won’t experience anomie), Innovation (still want to reach
culture goals but cannot do so with legitimate means), Ritualism (when you no longer strive for
culture goals but would have legitimate means to do so. They often already have something else to
be proud of such as working as a doctor. They have ritualised the rules/law and know that culture
goals cannot always be met), Retreatism (often with homeless people and addicts. They step back
from society, don’t want to reach culture goals but also don’t have the means to do so anyways),
Rebellion (what you see in terrorist networks. They detest current culture goals and want to establish
new ones. They also might define the boundaries of what counts as legitimate means differently.
They may believe that it is legitimate to use violence to achieve their culture goals).
Institutional Anomie theory (Messner & Rosenfeld) ->
Crime -> difficult to define, may differ over countries but there is also international law. Human
behaviour that concerns a rule violation, often a rule from the criminal code but not necessarily, with
serious consequences for society or victims, and that people perceive as a violation of the legal order,
engendering a sense of injustice. Common parts of definitions are:
- Human behaviour
- Includes rule violation (often a rule from the criminal code) highly country dependent
- Serious consequences for society or victims
- Violation of legal order, evoke some sense of injustice happening
Crime can be a legal construction, but it is also a social construction (what we consider as a crime,
believe should be criminalised). In the end, a legal construction is also just a social construction.
Therefore, there are:
- Differences between groups or persons
- Differences in time
- Differences between countries
- Criminalisation (something added as crime) and decriminalisation (taken out of law)
Criminology -> it consists of several disciplines that come together, it is not normative like
law. Criminology is a multidisciplinary science (1) that studies crime (1) and its reactions to it (1)
(both formal and informal reactions). Criminologists do not only study crime in the sense of
behaviour that has been criminalized but they adopt a broader definition of crime (see previous
question). They see crime as a social construction and therefore also study processes of
criminalization and decriminalization.
It is not law, it is a (social) science. It’s the science of an object which is crime and the reactions to it.
Thus, how do people deal with crime, what is the justice system, so the formal reaction. What works
and what doesn’t in terms of approaches to crime? What works in preventing crime? what do they
think about crime, what do they think about how it is punished. What are the differences between
the groups and also between different cultures? Criminology is extremely practice based. Make the
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situation better, crime happens but what can we do? Criminology is multidisciplinary: It combines
social studies such as sociology, geography, economics, public administration etc., human sciences
(psychology, biology), natural sciences (physics, chemistry which are more forensic based) and legal
sciences (criminal law, administrative law). It originated in anthropology and similar sciences.
Criminology is not normative; it focuses on theory (to explain reality) and empirical research. You
for example make theories on why crime is higher in certain neighbourhoods and then you conduct
research to investigate that theory and whether it is correct.
General Strain theory (Agnew) chapter 12 page 427-> the goals you have (such as cultural goals)
cannot be reached since you don’t possess the needed resources. When someone commits crimes it
might be due to strains/stressors since it could be a response. You don’t have legitimate means to
reach them so you go for other means instead which could be through criminal acts. Anomie like this
is however only one form of strain, there are three categories of strain in total:
1) Individuals are treated in a negative manner by others (bullying, discrimination…)
2) Individuals lose something they value (social status…)
3) Individuals are unable to achieve their goals (culture goals…)
Strains → negative emotions → crime
There are several examples of what strains can be:
• Parental rejection
• Child abuse/neglect
• Negative secondary school experiences
• Abusive peer relations
• Work at jobs in the secondary labour market
• Unemployment
• Marital problems
• Criminal victimization
• Discrimination
Factors influencing the effects of strains and negative emotions on crime:
• Ability to cope with strains in a legal manner (you know where to go for help)
• The costs of criminal coping
• Disposition for criminal coping (by chronic, repeated strains)
Control-balance theory (Tittle) -> there are also elements of rational choice, routine activities,
differential association, strain and labelling theory visible. Compared to the general strain theory, he
states that not enough control also leads to deviant behaviour as well as too much control.
Furthermore, he added that people are agents and objects of social control, we control but also are
controlled. Control ratio describes the balance between exercising control and being controlled. If
there is a control-balance between being controlled and controlling others, there is conformity.
Control imbalance in either direction causes deviance. However, the direction does influence the
form of crime: If you are subjected to a lot of control but aren’t able to control others as much, this
leads to repression. Here, people commit predatory crimes, meaning they rob, rape and hurt others
like a predator. Also, defiance and making others submit. If you control others a lot but are not really
controlled yourself, you exploit others more, plunder their resources. It actually explains white-collar
crime quite well.
In order for deviance to occur at all a number of causal elements must be present (page 257)
(social) Control theory (Hirschi) -> everyone would commit crime if they could. Better to ask why
people don’t commit crimes rather than why they do. How are we constrained from committing
crime? Answer: everyone is subject to some kind of social control that prevents us from displaying
