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Modern History Notes -
Contents
Chapter 19 – An Age of Revolution........................................................................................................2
Questions from Chapter 19 –.............................................................................................................9
Chapter 20 – The Industrial Transformation of Europe, 1750-1850....................................................12
Questions from Chapter 20 –...........................................................................................................17
Chapter 21 – Restoration, Reform, and Revolution, 1814-1848..........................................................19
Questions From Chapter 21 –..........................................................................................................29
Chapter 22 – Nationalism and Political Reform, 1850-1880................................................................30
Questions from chapter 22 –...........................................................................................................38
Chapter 23 – The Age of Optimism......................................................................................................39
Questions from Chapter 23 –...........................................................................................................45
Chapter 24 – Imperialism and Escalating Tension, 1880-1914.............................................................46
Questions from Chapter 24 –...........................................................................................................55
Chapter 25 – War and Revolution, 1914-1919.....................................................................................56
Questions from Chapter 25 –...........................................................................................................64
Chapter 26 – The Illusion of Stability, 1919-1930................................................................................66
Questions from Chapter 26 –...........................................................................................................74
Chapter 27 – The Tortured Decade, 1930-1939...................................................................................75
Questions from Chapter 27 –...........................................................................................................82
Chapter 28 – The Era of the Second World War, 1939-1949...............................................................82
Questions from Chapter 28 –...........................................................................................................91
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Chapter 19 – An Age of Revolution
The Origins of the Revolution, 1775-1789
o Today, the French Revolution is seen as the beginning of modern European, as well
as modern French, history.
Most powerful monarch had to accept constitutional limits to his power by
subjects convinced of their rights
Monarch was eventually executed and the monarchy abolished
o Events in France reverberated in Europe
o The revolutionary desire in the ordinary soldiers also allowed France to get the
better of many armies in combat, under its General Napoleon Bonaparte
His armies conquered a mixture of imperial aggression and revolutionary
change
o Europe was transformed by the shifting balance of power and by the spread of
revolutionary ideas
o The revolution itself had some important components –
A new understanding of the people became irresistible: they were the
nation and, as citizens, had the right to representation in government
Central was the complex process by which public opinion was shaped and, in
turn, shaped events
Change driven in part by symbols/flags, rallying cries, inspiring art – that
challenged an old political order and legitimized a new one
Revolutionary Movements in Europe (pg.546)
o British government faced the revolt of Americans, and also increasing tension at
home from people disgruntled with the actions of the government in regards to the
American revolution; they now demanded reform of the ministerial government
o Reform sprang up in Ireland in 1779 with reformers demanding greater autonomy
from Britain, after being disenfranchised with Anglo-Scot-centric decisions
They set up a Volunteer Movement (1779-1782) which was neutralized
when greater parliamentary autonomy for Ireland was granted in 1782
o Political crisis with political overtones brewing in the United Provinces (Netherlands)
It was governed by a narrow oligarchy of old merchant families and a
military governor (stadholder)
The interests of the merchants and stadholder frequently clashed
Tensions deepened during the American Revolution, as merchants favoured
trade with the colonists and the prince favoured maintaining an English
alliance
Dutch “patriot” party stakes its claim but is quickly deposed by newly
wealthy traders and professionals in 1787, this restoring power to the
stadholder (the prince of Orange)
o Both the Irish and Dutch rebels echoed the American rebels in practical and
ideological ways
o Desire for political reform flared in Poland as well
Government reform was necessary after a land partition In 1772 left the
state without some of its wealthiest regions
But reformists went further – establishing a coalition to form a written
constitution modelled by that of the American constitution
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The document known as the May 3 (1791) Constitution was the first codified
constitution in Europe
o Poland thus had a constitutional monarchy, but Catherine the Great (of Russia)
would not tolerate a constitutional government so close to her borders
She ordered an invasion of Poland in 1792
Unsuccessful Polish defence led by Kosciuszko
Another partition of Poland (more extensive) took place followed by a Polish
uprising led by Kosciuszko
Uprising was mercilessly supressed by Russian and Prussian forces
The American Revolution and the Kingdom of France (pg.548)
o France drawn into Britain’s conflict with America as a result of the outcome of Seven
Years’ war and their loss in colonial power; aiming to damage Britain’s attempt to
monopolize
French gave covert aid to America from 1775 (beginning of conflict)
After British loss at Battle of Saratoga in 1777, France formally recognized
independent United States and committed troops and funds to their cause
French support was decisive – in 1781 French fleet kept reinforcements
from reaching the British force besieged by George Washington in Yorktown,
with that battle effectively ending the war
Independence formally recognized by the Treaty of Paris in 1783
o Consequences for France of its American alliance were momentous
France now had 1 billion livres (pounds) debt (1/4 of their total debt)
Direct participation of 9000 French soldiers
o Benjamin Franklin succeeded in selling an idealized image of America to the French
court in 1775, in the hope of receiving aid
o The US constitution was published in Paris, with much debate already circulating
about political reform; America became the blueprint
Arthur Young “The American Revolution has laid the foundation of another
in France, if [the French] government does not take care of itself”
o By the mid-1780s, French reform was inevitable but to what extent?
The Crisis of the Old Regime (pg.548)
o The Old Regime was brought to the point of crisis in late 1780s by 3 factors
1 – Heavy debts that dwarfed an antiquated system for collecting revenue
2 – Institutional constraints on the monarchy that defended privileged
interests
3 – Public opinion that envisioned thoroughgoing reform and pushed
monarchy in that direction
o Another factor was the ineptitude of King Louis XVI (r.1774-1793)
The queen was Austrian Marie Antoinette who was regarded with suspicion
by the French people as many despised the “unnatural” alliance between
France and Austria; she was also politically inept
o The financial ruin was systematic of the inability for France to tax its wealthiest
citizens (the nobility)
The royal law courts and the parlements defended this
(parlementarians were nobles who just defended their own privileges)
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o Louis XVI resorted to common fund raising expedients such as selling offices, to gain
finance for the government (to no avail – compared to the British national bank
system) and disastrous harvests also worsened the economic crisis
o The parlements and many common people resisted new economic policies
Peasants and townsfolk did not trust the free markets either
o Notably, the imprint of “enlightened” public opinion was apparent in the thinking of
some courtiers and educated commoners who believed the government and
economy had to change; this now being openly debated in salons, cafes etc.
o In 1787, the king called an “Assembly of Notables” (a group of elites) in an attempt
to gather support against the parlements; he found little support
Some suggested that a constitutional body needed to make the reforms
o Nobles and clergy who were opposed to reform supported the call for an Estates
General, confident they could control its deliberations
The Estates General (pg.550)
o In 1788, mounting pressure from common people, as well as courtiers, led Louis to
summon the Estates General
The estates system – Three estates voted by order (1st – Clergy, 2nd – Nobles, 3rd Commoners)
o Louis XVI proposed adding double the commoners (allowing them to be the most
powerful in this system) assuming he had grassroots support and that their extreme
reforms would help the nobles and clergy accept Louis’s actual reforms
Louis’ situation was precarious when the estates general convened in May
1789
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o In the 3 estate, a group of men convinced of the validity of their viewpoints and
determined on reform met with resistance from the first and second estates, and
from Louis himself
They convened and seized control of the reins of government – a revolution
began
1789: A Revolution Begins
o Once the 3 estates convened at the royal palace at Versailles, conflicts surfaced and
the ineptitude of the Crown was immediately clear
o For 6 weeks the Estates General was unable to meet officially, and the king did
nothing to break the impasse
During this interlude the determination of Third Estate deputies
strengthened
o More and more deputies were won over to the notion that the three estates must
begin in the most systematic way: France must have a written constitution
The National Assembly
o By the middle of June, more than 30 reformist members of the clergy were sitting
jointly with the 3rd estate
o On June 17th 1789, the Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly of France
After being locked out, they produced the document – Tennis Court Oath
Collective pledge to meet until a written constitution had been achieved
o The king continued to mishandle the situation with feeble attempts at compromise
He then ordered troops to come to Paris
o This call for troops aroused Parisian suspicions
Some assumed a plot was afoot to starve Paris and destroy the National
Assembly
