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Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen (RU)

Samenvatting van de online course die gegeven wordt tijdens de het vak Qualitative Methods. Bij de samenvatting wordt elk hoofdstuk uitgebreid uitgelegd en de antwoorden voor de toetsen in de online cursus staan erin.

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Online Course – Qualitative methods
Chapter 1: Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods
Defining the term Qualitative Research Methods is really difficult. John W. Creswell explains
qualitative research as:
Qualitative research begins with assumptions and the use of interpretive/theoretical frameworks that
inform the study of research problems addressing the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a
social or human problem. To study this problem, qualitative researchers use an emerging qualitative
approach to inquiry, the collection of data in a natural setting sensitive to the people and places under
study, and data analysis that is both inductive and deductive and establishes patterns or themes. The
final written report or presentation includes the voices of participants, the reflexivity of a researcher, a
complex description and interpretation of a problem, and its contribution to the literature or a call for
change.

In this course, we have chosen to focus on some of the most common methods that are
used. These include:
- Case studies

, - Grounded theory
- Phenomenology
- Discourse analysis
- Ethnography
- Visual data analysis
- Objective hermeneutics
- Content analysis
Videoclip 1:
Qualitative research is one of the two major approaches to research methodology in social
sciences. Qualitative research involves an in-depth, contextual understanding of human
action and of the reasons, not causes, that govern human action. Simply put, it investigates
the why and how of our actions, as compared to what, where, and when of quantitative
research. Hence, the need is for smaller but focused samples rather than large random
samples, which are then in-depth analysed. Unlike quantitative research, which relies
exclusively on the analysis of numerical or quantifiable data, data for qualitative research
come in many forms - including text, sound, or still and moving images. Especially in fields
like human geography, anthropology and sociology, as well as in social-psychology, the
social and physical context of human actions plays an important role. We are aware that
each person interprets the situation in their own way, and that they act accordingly.
Qualitative research methods are therefore crucial for sound social research. Qualitative
research is the study of reasons, meaning and sense behind human actions. It seeks to
answer why people practice certain human actions. It analyses utterances and performances
of meaning, mainly through oral communications, texts, and images.
The main tool for this kind of research is the survey. The aim of quantitative analysis is to
find numerical patterns in responses to survey questions or in observed behaviours. And to
find indicators for the magnitude of people's decisions and behaviours.
Usually, qualitative research follows an inductive design, where openness to the specific
non-generalisable aspects play an important role, from which we can infer our insights. While
quantitative research follows a deductive design, seeking confirmation of pre-given
theoretical propositions.
One common danger in setting up your qualitative research design is a lack of focus. Of
course, in all qualitative research we are especially interested in the specificities of the
contexts and situations we investigate. But this sometimes also seduces us to follow all kinds
of side tracks, which are maybe not that relevant for answering our research questions.
You need to set up your research in such a way that validity and reliability are as much as
possible guaranteed. So do your observations cover what you intended to observe? This is
what is called internal validity. Are your observations also valid for other cases? Can they
be generalised? This is what is called external validity. And could another researcher
replicate your observations, or would your respondents provide more or less the same
answers if they were asked again? This is what is called reliability.
Trustworthiness involves establishing:
- Credibility - the confidence in the 'truth' of the findings,
- Transferability - showing that the findings have applicability to other contexts.
- Dependability - showing that the findings are consistent and could be repeated, and
- Confirmability - a degree of neutrality or the extent to which the findings of a study
are shaped by the respondents and not by researcher bias, motivation, or interest.

,Keyterms
Terms Explanation

Interpretive method A method in which qualitative data are not taken at face value,
but which uses techniques for understanding what might have
been meant while taking the specific context and subjective
intentions into account.
Representation Data that are not necessarily objective facts, but are at best
representations or expressions of factual situations.
Naturalistic approach An approach that studies things in their natural settings and
contexts.
Natural setting The specific historical and geographical context/situation
which people try to interpret and make sense of.
Context The specific historical and geographical context/situation
which people try to interpret and make sense of.
Subjectivity The way individual personal judgment is shaped by personal
opinions and feelings, as well as meanings allocated to the
situation by the person being confronted.
Subjectivity of The way individual researcher's interpretations are shaped by
Researcher personal positionings, ideologies, interpretative/theoretical
frameworks, opinions and feelings.
Subjectivity of The way the participants subjectively interpret their situation
Participants researched and how their actions are led by these interpretations.
Meaning The subjective significance allocated by a person to a
situation, or the sense this situation subjectively imparts to that
person.
Induction Making an inference or drawing general conclusions based on
empirical observations in a particular situation.
Deduction Deriving a hypothesis by means of logical reasoning based on
preset general theoretical insights.
Exploratory Methodological approach attempting to discover the hitherto
unknown, and thus to contribute to theory building.
Confirmatory Methodological approach attempting to find confirmation of
theoretically derived hypotheses.
Explanation Explaining phenomena by referring to the necessary and
sufficient causal relationships between causes and effects.
Understanding Understanding phenomena by referring to the subjective
reasons people have for their actions or the subjective sense
people make of their actions.
Research Design Important decisions the researcher needs to make about the
way the researcher wants to answer the research questions,
such as:
 general setting, like the temporal and spatial setting
 which general methods would help to find answers
 how to collect data (including sampling methods)
 what methods to use to analyse data
 ethical issues
 how to report results
Research Method The technical procedures governing how to apply a specific
method.
Validity The way the analysis results represent what they are
supposed to represent in the current situation, and how far
they can be generally applied to other situations.
Reliability The way in which the results of the analysis can be

, reproduced, and are robust for disturbing influences.
Credibility The confidence in the 'truth' of the findings.
Transferability The way the findings have applicability in other contexts.
Dependability The way the findings are consistent and could be repeated.
Confirmability The degree of neutrality or the extent to which the findings of a
study are shaped by the respondents and not by researcher
bias, motivation, or interest.
Quiz:
1. You are now aquainted with the concepts of 'construct validity', 'internal validity', 'external
validity' and 'reliability'. Below you see a number of definitions. Now try to match them with
the correct concept.
1.1 Establishing a causal relationship, whereby certain conditions are shown to lead to other
conditions, as opposed to spurious relationships.
Internal validity
1.2 Demonstrating that the operations of a study, such as the data collection procedures, can
be repeated with the same results.
Reliability
1.3 Establishing correct operational measures for the concepts being studied.
Construct validity
1.4 Establishing the domain to which a study's findings can be generalized.
External validity
2. As a general rule, qualitative researchers are reluctant to generalise from one case to
another because...
The context of cases differ
3. Which of the following are characteristic of Qualitative Research Methods?
???
4. In which of the following scenarios would qualitative research be best suited to produce
the answers you need?
You want to do research on a new trend in society that has not been investigated before
5. Validity and reliability are important concepts within research methodology. Which of the
following concepts is most important when making sure your study can be reproduced by
other researchers in the future?
Reliability
6. Qualitative research does not make use of existing theoretical frameworks.
Wrong
7. The goal of qualitative research is to discover the general laws that govern human action.
Wrong
8. In which one of these cases would qualitative research be most suitable?

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