Week 1
Notes
Thursday
Two types of factors:
- Input: Factors that construct a campaign (under control of the one creating the message)
Independent variables
- Output: The campaign’s effects on the receiver Dependent variables
Input factors: what can you influence in a message? Independent variables
- Source: Who is the message attributed to?
o Demographics: Age, gender, ethnicity
o Celebrity, expert
o Reliability, attractiveness, authority
- Content:
o Structure of the message: Length, repetition, number of arguments, argument
quality, implicit vs. explicit conclusion etc.
o Nature of the message: Humor, fear, instrumental vs vocal music, positive / negative
frame, heuristics, design aspects, etc.
- Recipient: What are persuasive effects for a specific target group in general?
o Demographics: Age, gender, o Life-style
ethnicity o Norms and values
o Intelligence o Emotion/mood present before
o Personality seeing the message
o Cognitive factors
- Channel: Which medium for which effects?
o Media modality: audio, visual, spoken, context, with(out) background noise, (non-)
verbally, person/ voice over, TV, social media, radio, print
o Interpersonal (face-to-face) versus via mass media
o Media multi-tasking
o Creative vs Traditional medium
Output factors: What effects does the input factor have?
1. Exposure 8. Storing attitude in memory
2. Attention for message 9. Retrieving attitude from memory
3. Attitude towards the ad 10. Behavioural intention
4. Interest in content 11. Behaviour
5. Understanding/comprehension 12. Evaluation of behaviour
6. Generating own thoughts 13. Permanent behaviour change
7. Attitude towards message content
,One of the earliest communication models was formulated by Harold Lasswell to evaluate
message effectiveness, we ask ‘who says what in which channel to whom, with what effect?’ I.e.:
- Characteristics of the source (who)
- Content of the information being communicated (what)
- The medium to transmit it (which channel)
- The characteristics of the recipient (to whom)
- and how their opinions or preferences are influenced as a result (with what effect).
Hovland developed the Yale model of persuasion and systematically studied the possible effects of
particular characteristics of the message content (the what), the source (the who) and the recipients
(the to whom). The Yale model has 4 steps:
1. First, you must pay attention to the information contained in this message, (instead of other
things) paying attention to and talking to your friends that are also in the room.
2. Second, the message must be comprehensible.
3. In the third step you may accept the message and develop a more positive attitude towards
the advertised product (positive att.). But for that attitude to influence your behaviour
permanently:
4. You must retain the new attitude in the period after you have seen the commercial (i.e. your
positive attitude lasts).
If this happens, and at a later moment you see the product in the shop, your positive attitude will
influence your behaviour. You will buy the product.
The persuasion Matrix offers a framework that helps us avoid making common communication
mistakes such as:
- Attenuated-effects fallacy: one should avoid exaggerated expectations regarding the likely
size of one’s persuasive impact. The probability that the communication will evoke each of
the twelve output steps is conditional upon the occurrence of all preceding steps.
- The distant-measure fallacy: Advertisers tend to invest much in the initial steps of the matrix
such as exposure, which is far away from step 10, ‘behavioural change’, which is actually the
payoff output. If your goal is to sell, do not evaluate based upon exposure (reach).
- The neglected-mediator fallacy: Enhancing one step may decrease the effect of another
(mediating effect): take all output steps into account. Adding humour to enhance attention
(step 2) may distract them from comprehension, (step 4).
- The compensatory principle: opposite of ‘neglected-mediator fallacy’: an input factor that
decreases one output factor, this may be compensated by an increase in another output
factor. Educated people may be more vulnerable to persuasion as their attention and
comprehension is raised (even though there is a lowered likelihood of yielding).
- Golden mean principle: More is not always better. Choose the golden mean.
- The situational-weighting principle: The persuasion matrix offers more clarity and overview
regarding the effect of input variables. The effect an input element can have is dependent on
other input elements. Check which output factors it enhances and reduces to deduce the
optimal level at which to set the input variable.
Didn’t note the variants/alternatives to the communication/persuasion matrix (51-53) nor ‘directive
theories of the persuasion process: the communication/persuasion matrix (44-48)
,Friday
There is no strict hierarchical order that always must be followed: Alternative-routes variants
regarding the McGuire matrix:
- Short-cuts: low involved ppl may immediately go from ‘like ad’ via ‘like brand’ to ‘buy brand’.
- Looping: high involved people may need several exposures and repeated thinking about the
content before deciding to buy it.
- Reverse order: one may first buy the brand or follow the advice from a salesperson. Then
you form an attitude about the brand or pay attention to an ad.
McGuire’s matrix
- It makes you aware of the cumulative effects of input factors and of how they interact
- The matrix makes you aware that behavioral change is a process. There are many steps
between exposure and permanent behaviour change. The input factors might affect each
output factor differently (pos., neg., or not)
- The matrix enables you to systematically overview the scientific knowledge on the effects of
each input factor on output factors (cf., your individual literature paper).
- The matrix helps you to see the weak spots of some input factors, which other may solve.
Chapter 1| Introduction
For Hovland’s four-step model, all steps – attention, understand, acceptance and retention-
influence the probability of eventual attitude change, but the content should also be relevant to the
recipients. The nature of the source may also give the recipient greater or lesser reason to pay
attention to particular information and to use it in shaping their attitude
The findings of the Hovland group are summarised in Figure 1.2. Better known collectively as the Yale
model of persuasion (still widely used).
However, it allots the recipient a somewhat
passive limited role: as soon as the recipient is
motivated to notice the message, they will
internalise it, ultimately shaping their attitude
and behaviour. I.e. the model asserts only that
motivated people will take in information; it
does not state how exactly that process works
or whether its machinations affect the
eventual outcome.
McGuire’s inoculation theory (1964) investigates how people can arm themselves against
information intended to influence and change their opinion. He identifies 6 steps:
- Presentation - Comprehension - Retention
- Attention - Yielding - Behaviour
In his view, the steps could influence each other. He used the term ‘inoculation’ to indicate that
weak arguments might act like a ‘virus’, triggering a cognitive reaction which actually protects,
reinforces and helps to maintain an existing attitude. It hence centres more upon the process
involved in persuasion.
An early advertising model is the AIDA model: ‘Attention, Interest, Desire, Action’ –
, - later added: AIDAS ‘satisfaction’ customer loyalty i.e. happy customer behaviour
repetition.
- the four steps tend to run in parallel and one or more of them can be skipped.
- The model assumes that people devote a certain amount of time and attention to the
information presented to them. In reality, however, that is not always the case.
- The AIDA approach once again regards the recipient of the advertising message as fairly
passive
Ethics
People can be influenced without realising it.
- For example, subliminal advertising is frowned upon and is even banned in some places.
- When force comes into play, an example is ‘brainwashing’, as sometimes used to extract
confessions or witness statements.
- Religious cults sometimes cut off members from the outside world.
- Propaganda is used to systematically manipulate public opinion, so while it’s not forceful, it’s
questionable. Propaganda is used by totalitarian regimes to justify their own policy
