Ethics Summary
By Karina Akopian
Content:
Lecture 1
Lecture 2
Lecture 3
Lecture 4
Lecture 5
Lecture 6
Exam open-ended questions and answers
This summary contains all information from slides, knowledge clips, lectures
and quizzes.
,Lecture 1 2
Business science focuses on markets in society: 2
Ethical decision-making: 3
What is hard about ethical decision-making? 3
Is there an unquestionable basis on which we can ground our ethical principles? 4
Lecture 2 6
Ethics for Aristotle: 6
Highest Good: 7
Telos and Teleological: 8
Logos as human telos: 9
Arete and the eudaimonia of life: 9
Summing up: 10
Practicing Virtue: 10
Virtuous Life in Polis: 11
The golden mean: 11
Lecture 3 13
Utilitarianism vs Libertarianism: 13
Libertarianism itself: 14
John Locke: (Libertarian) 14
State of Nature: 16
Free Market: Robert Nozick 17
Criticism of libertarians: 18
Jeremy Bentham: (Utilitarian) 18
John Stuart Mill:(Utilitarian) 19
Natural Law vs Positive Law: 21
Differences between the theories of Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill: 22
Consequentialism: 22
Intentions and Motives 22
Criticism of utilitarians: 23
Kant vs Libertarianism: 23
Lecture 4 25
Intentions and Motives 25
A Priori (denotes reasoning proceeded from theoretical deduction rather than from
observation) 25
Rationality and Freedom 26
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, Moral Compass: 27
Criticism of Kant about Utilitarianism: 28
The aim of Ethics according to Kant: 28
Maxim: 29
Categorical Imperative: 29
Hypothetical Imperative: 31
The first and second formulations of Universal Law: 32
In short: 32
Criticism of Kant: 33
Aristotle vs Kant: 34
Kant vs Utilitarianism: 35
Lecture 5 36
John Rawls: 36
Social Contract: 36
Veil of Ignorance: 37
Justice as Fairness theory by John Rawls: 37
Moral arbitraries: 38
Rejecting moral dessert: 39
Is life unfair?: 40
Moral Limits of Contract: 40
Criticism 42
John Locke: 42
Jean Jacques Rousseau 44
Thomas Hobbes: 45
Rawls vs Kant: 46
Lecture 6 47
Communitarianism: 47
Normative vs Descriptive ethics: 48
Criticism to Communitarianism: 50
What do we owe one another? 50
Moral individualism: 50
Should the government be morally neutral? 51
Obligations beyond consent: 52
Can loyalty override universal moral principles? 53
Justice and the common good: 54
Exam open-ended questions for practice 56
1. Describe the criticism of Rawls according to communitarian philosophers 56
2. Consider the maxim “I will dry over the speed limit to avoid traffic”. Construct an
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,argument based on Kant’s first formulation of the categorical imperative that shows that
this maxim is immoral. 56
3. Describe criticism of libertarianism: 57
5. Consider the maxim: “I only care about myself’’. Construct an argument based on
Kant’s first formulation of the categorical imperative that shows that this maxim is
immoral. 59
6. Both Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill devoted much attention to developing a
theory of pleasure. What role pleasure plays in utilitarian ethics? 60
7. What is according to Aristotle the eudaimonic life? 60
8. What is the intended role of the Rawlsian condition that the social contract should be
agreed upon "behind a veil of ignorance" in the context of his theory of justice? 61
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,Lecture 1
Business science focuses on organizations as an economical agents and as
environments:
As economic agents, organizations make decisions and take actions that can have
significant impacts on society and individuals. Therefore, it is important to evaluate the
ethical implications of their behavior and decisions, such as their impact on stakeholders,
their compliance with laws and regulations, and their role in promoting social and
environmental responsibility.
As environments, organizations have a powerful influence on the behavior of individuals
within them, as well as on their interactions with external stakeholders. The ethical
implications of this can be evaluated by examining how organizational structures,
policies, and practices shape the behavior of individuals, and how they can create or
discourage ethical behavior. Organizational culture, power dynamics, incentives, and
decision-making processes, can all play a role in shaping ethical behavior within an
organization. Additionally, the way an organization interacts with its external
stakeholders, such as customers, suppliers, and the community, can also have ethical
implications.
Business science focuses on markets in society:
The impact of markets on society: In terms of the impact of markets on society, business
science studies how markets function and how they affect individuals, organizations, and
society as a whole. This includes understanding how markets allocate resources, how
they create incentives for innovation and efficiency, and how they shape the distribution
of income and wealth. Additionally, it also examines the potential negative impacts of
markets, such as market failures, market power, and market externalities.
The impact of society on markets: The impact of society on markets also plays a major
role in business science. This includes understanding how society's values, norms, and
institutions shape the behavior of firms and consumers, as well as how they influence
market outcomes. This also includes how laws, regulations, and public policies can shape
the way markets function and how they serve the public interest. Additionally, the impact
of social movements, public opinion, and changing consumer preferences can also affect
markets and can be studied in business science.
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,Ethical decision-making:
Ethical decision-making is the process of evaluating and choosing among alternatives in a
way that is consistent with ethical principles. This process involves recognizing the
different alternatives, stakeholders, and consequences of each potential decision, as well
as evaluating them in light of relevant ethical principles and values.
Ethical decision-making is often multi-dimensional, and decisions often involve clashes
of legitimate rights or values or different principles and notions of what is good. For
example, a decision to increase profits may clash with the value of fair treatment of
employees, while a decision to protect the environment may clash with the value of
economic growth. Balancing these competing values can be complex, and there may not
be a clear "right" or "wrong" answer.
The core of ethical decision-making is the ability to balance these clashing values. The
ability to weigh the relative importance of different values and to make a decision that is
consistent with one's ethical principles is the foundation for ethical decision-making. It is
important to note that, in cases where there are no clashes of values, ethical problems are
not present.
What is hard about ethical decision-making?
1. Complexity: Ethical dilemmas often involve multiple competing values and
perspectives, which can make it difficult to identify a clear "right" or "wrong"
course of action.
2. Lack of consensus: Different individuals, groups, and societies may have different
ethical principles and values, which can make it difficult to reach a consensus on
what is the right course of action.
3. Uncertainty: The future consequences of a decision are often uncertain, which can
make it difficult to predict the long-term ethical implications of a particular course
of action.
4. Emotion: Ethical dilemmas can be emotionally charged, and it can be difficult to
make decisions that are consistent with one's ethical principles when emotions are
running high.
5. Power imbalances: In some cases, the parties involved in an ethical dilemma may
have unequal power and resources, which can make it difficult for the less
powerful parties to have their perspectives and values taken into account.
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, 6. Personal biases and conflicts of interest: Decision makers may have personal
biases and conflicts of interest that can influence their decision-making, which can
make it difficult to make impartial and objective decisions.
7. Lack of knowledge or understanding: Decision-makers may lack knowledge or
understanding of the ethical principles and values relevant to a particular situation,
which can make it difficult to make informed and well-reasoned ethical decisions.
Is there an unquestionable basis on which we can ground our ethical principles?
The question of whether there is an unquestionable basis on which we can ground our
ethical principles is a matter of ongoing debate in philosophy and ethics. Different
philosophical and ethical theories propose different ways of grounding ethical principles.
Deontological theories, such as those proposed by Immanuel Kant, argue that there are
certain moral rules or duties that are universally and objectively valid, independent of
their consequences. These moral rules are based on the inherent value of human beings
and the importance of respecting their autonomy and dignity.
Consequentialist theories, such as those proposed by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart
Mill, argue that the moral value of an action should be judged based on its consequences.
They propose that actions that lead to the greatest overall happiness for the greatest
number of people are morally good.
Virtue ethics, as proposed by Aristotle, emphasizes the importance of cultivating virtues,
such as courage, wisdom, and justice, as the foundation of ethical behavior.
Religious ethics, like the one proposed by many religions, often base their ethical
principles on their religious teachings and beliefs.
There are also many other ethical theories that propose different ways of grounding
ethical principles, such as feminist ethics, care ethics, and environmental ethics.
It is important to note that, while different theories may propose different ways of
grounding ethical principles, there is no one universally accepted or unquestionable basis
on which to ground ethical principles. Ultimately, the question of what the right ethical
principle or decision is may depend on the specific context and the perspectives of the
individuals involved.
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,Lecture 2
The word "ethics" is derived from the Greek word "ethos," which means character,
custom, or habit. It has come to encompass multiple meanings today.
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, 1. Ethics as a theory or system of moral values refers to the set of principles or
beliefs that guide an individual or group's behavior and decision-making. These
principles may be based on religious teachings, philosophical beliefs, cultural
norms, or personal values.
2. Ethics as a discipline refers to the systematic study of moral values and principles.
It encompasses the study of what is good and bad, right and wrong, and moral
duty and obligation. This field of study examines the moral implications of human
actions and decisions and provides guidance for ethical behavior.
Ethics is an interdisciplinary field that draws on philosophy, psychology, sociology,
politics, and other disciplines to understand human behavior and decision-making in the
moral context.
Ethics for Aristotle:
● Aristotle believed that ethics is not a theoretical discipline, but rather a practical
one. He argued that the goal of ethics is not to simply understand moral principles,
but rather to use that understanding to guide one's behavior and decision-making.
● According to Aristotle, the purpose of studying ethics is not to satisfy curiosity,
but rather to become more capable of achieving the good life. He believed that
the ultimate goal of ethics is to answer the practical question of how men should
best live.
● Aristotle believed that the highest good is eudaimonia, which is often translated
as "happiness" or "flourishing." He believed that eudaimonia is the ultimate
goal of human life and that it is achieved through the practice of virtue.
● Aristotle also believed that ethical questions are always connected with politics.
He believed that the good life can only be achieved within a community and that
the state has a crucial role in promoting virtue and fostering the conditions that
lead to eudaimonia.
Overall, Aristotle's approach to ethics emphasizes the practical aspects of moral
decision-making and the importance of living a virtuous life in order to achieve the
ultimate goal of human happiness.
Highest Good:
According to Aristotle, the highest good is eudaimonia, which is often translated as
"happiness" or "flourishing." He believed that eudaimonia is the ultimate goal of human
life and that it is achieved through the practice of virtue.
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, Eudaimonia is not a fleeting state of pleasure or satisfaction, but rather a long-term state
of well-being, fulfillment, and excellence in living. Aristotle believed that eudaimonia is
achieved when individuals live in accordance with reason and virtue, and when they are
able to realize their full potential as human beings.
An example of eudaimonia would be a person who is able to live a virtuous life and
achieve their full potential in terms of career, relationships, and overall well-being. This
person would be able to balance their own needs and desires with the needs of others and
would be able to make ethical decisions that benefit themselves and their community.
They would be able to find fulfillment and satisfaction in their life by living virtuously,
and they would be able to look back on their life with a sense of accomplishment and
pride.
Here's an example of a real-life person who might be considered to have achieved
eudaimonia or the highest good according to Aristotle's philosophy:
A teacher who has dedicated their life to helping students learn and grow. They have a
deep understanding of their subject matter and are able to convey that knowledge in a
way that is engaging and accessible to their students. They are able to form strong
relationships with their students and are able to help them develop the skills and
knowledge they need to be successful in life. They are respected by their colleagues and
students and are recognized as a leader in their field.
In terms of their personal life, they have a happy and fulfilling family life, and they are
able to balance their work and family responsibilities. They are active in their community
and are committed to making a positive impact on the lives of others. They have a sense
of purpose and meaning in their life, and they are able to look back on their life with a
sense of accomplishment and pride.
This person has lived a virtuous life and has been able to find the mean between excess
and deficiency, they have achieved the ultimate goal of human life which is eudaimonia,
this person is able to find fulfillment and satisfaction in their life by living virtuously.
According to Aristotle, the highest good is self-sufficient, meaning it does not rely on
anything else to be valuable or desirable. It is also desirable for itself, and not for the
sake of some other good. In other words, it is the ultimate end or purpose of human
existence, and all other goods are desirable for its sake.
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