Hoofdstuk 7: Groups, social processes, and communications
Reference groups
Reference groups are those groups that are used by a person as a basis for comparison and guidance
when forming their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours (die groepen die door een persoon worden
gebruikt als basis voor vergelijking en leidraad bij het vormen van zijn overtuigingen, houdingen en
gedrag). Hyman defined reference points: individuals use to evaluate their situation. Later, Park and
Lessig developed the concept to include ‘an actual or imaginary institution, individual or groups
conceived as having significant relevance upon an individual’s evaluations, aspirations or behaviour’.
This broadens the idea of reference groups from an individual person to an institution.
Types of groups
Reference groups can be described across two dimensions – membership and attractiveness of the
groups. Membership groups are those to which we belong (contractual, identificational, or
associative) and those which we no longer wish to be associated with (disclaimant). There are also
groups to which we aspire to belong (aspirational) and others which we wish to avoid entirely
(avoidance or dissociative).
Attractiveness Membership
Member Non-member
Positive Contactual or associative Aspirational
Negative Disclaimant Avoidance or dissociative
1. Contactual or associative groups are generally close groups with which we interact regularly
and where there is a degree of proximity (nauwe groepen waarmee wij regelmatig contact
hebben en waar een zekere nabijheid bestaat). This closeness may be through family or
friendship ties, or through mutual interests such as work, a hobby, or a sporting interest.
2. Disclaimant group is one that we currently belong to or perhaps belonged to in the past but
no longer want to associate ourselves with (een waartoe we momenteel behoren of
misschien in het verleden behoorden, maar waarmee we ons niet langer willen associëren).
People may also belong to groups that they would prefer others not to know about as they
feel that knowing this could lead to stigmatization by others Disclaimant groups may be
transitional groups from our past that we are trying to move on from (e.g. school friends
going in different paths).
3. Aspirational groups are composed of people that the consumer can identify with or admire
(often from afar) and aspires to be like in some way (mensen waarmee de consument zich
kan identificeren of die hij bewondert (vaak van veraf) en op de een of andere manier op wie
hij wil lijken). Often the aspirational group is actually an individual representing some state or
position we aspire to be like.
4. Dissociative or avoidance groups are groups we have negative feelings towards and whom
we avoid being associated with (zijn groepen waar we negatieve gevoelens voor hebben en
die we vermijden om mee geassocieerd te worden). They differ from disclaimant groups in
that we have never been members of such groups, and we associate negative feelings with
them for intrinsic qualities rather than because we or they have changed.
, 5. Formal group is one that is usually formed by some kind of outside structure, and it is likely
to have a formalized constitution and set of rules of conduct for members (één die
gewoonlijk wordt gevormd door een of andere externe structuur, en die waarschijnlijk een
geformaliseerde statuten en gedragsregels voor de leden heeft). Examples of formal groups
include being a member of a golf club and adhering to the strict dress codes associated with
such a club.
6. Informal group is formed by a group of individuals who have some sort of commonality but
no formal connection to each other (wordt gevormd door een groep individuen die een soort
gemeenschappelijkheid hebben maar geen formele band met elkaar). They may get together
because they have a mutual interest (such as gardening or singing), through common values
(e.g. a boycotting group), or through friendship.
Reference group influence
Mechanisms of reference group influence
Leigh (1989) recognized that reference group influence can be direct from the reference group to
individual members or indirect through an individual observing the behaviour of group members and
altering their own behaviour because of it. There are three main mechanisms of reference group
influence: informational, utilitarian, and value-expressive (Park and Lessig, 1977)
1. Informational group influence is when a consumer uses the reference group to actively get
information from opinion leaders or expert groups (wanneer een consument de
referentiegroep gebruikt om actief informatie in te winnen bij opinieleiders of
deskundigengroepen). The person will attribute benefits to the product through its
association with the group or individual but does not necessarily have any personal
interaction with them.
2. Utilitarian reference group influence is when a person is influenced in their choice of brand
by the preferences of those with whom they socialize, including family members and work
colleagues (wanneer een persoon in zijn merkkeuze wordt beïnvloed door de voorkeuren van
degenen met wie hij omgaat, waaronder familieleden en collega's op het werk). The decision
to purchase a brand will be influenced by the wish to satisfy the expectations others have,
and in some cultures this utilitarian influence can be very strong.
3. Value-expressive influence is when someone buys a particular brand to enhance their image
and because they admire characteristics of people who use the brand (wanneer iemand een
bepaald merk koopt om zijn imago te verbeteren en omdat hij kenmerken bewondert van
mensen die het merk gebruiken). Central to value-expressive influence is the idea that we
want to be like others whom we admire or respect in society.
Reference groups influencing public versus private consumption
Bearden and Etzel (1982) examined how reference group influence varied in relation to where
consumption occurs (private versus public) and the extent to which it is considered a necessity or a
,luxury, and this work has been very influential in
helping to understand reference group influence
on consumer behaviour.
Zie afbeelding hierlangs
Development of conformity
For the concept of reference groups to be useful to
marketers, there has to be some degree of
conformity that results from group membership.
Conformity can be defined as adoption behaviour
resulting from real or perceived pressure to comply
with a person or group (adoptiegedrag als gevolg van werkelijke of vermeende druk om een persoon
of groep te gehoorzamen). If you are with a group of friends and they all want to watch a football
match, but you would prefer to go shopping, you may conform to their decision because their
friendship is more important to you than going shopping. Mann (1969) identified four types of
conformity:
1. Normative conformity applies when a person wants to fit in with the group or is afraid of
being rejected by them and will publicly accept the group’s view even if privately they do not
agree (is van toepassing wanneer een persoon bij de groep wil horen of bang is om door de
groep te worden afgewezen en in het openbaar het standpunt van de groep accepteert, ook
al is hij het er privé niet mee eens).
2. Informational conformity occurs when someone actively looks for guidance from the group
where they lack knowledge or are in an ambiguous situation (doet zich voor wanneer iemand
actief op zoek gaat naar begeleiding van de groep bij gebrek aan kennis of in een ambigue
situatie).
3. Compliance refers to publicly changing behaviour to fit in with the group but privately
disagreeing, that is, a behavioural shift without an attitudinal one (verwijst naar het
publiekelijk veranderen van gedrag om bij de groep te horen, maar het er privé niet mee
eens zijn, d.w.z. een gedragsverandering zonder een attitudeverandering).
4. Internalization involves both an attitudinal and behavioural change in favour of the group
(omvat zowel een attitude- als een gedragswijziging ten gunste van de groep).
If someone is using a neighbourhood recycling scheme, normative conformity may dominate in
the early stages of recycling, when they sort and recycle packaging in order to fit into neighbourhood
norms and expectations. They may then enter a period of informational conformity, where they chat
to other neighbours and consult specialist websites to learn more about recycling. Compliance may
occur if people recycle but perhaps disagree with and resent the time taken, but most likely a process
of internalization will occur when they are recycling because they believe in the value and
importance of this behaviour.
How group norms influence conformity
Reactance is a motivational state, which acts as a counterforce to threats to a person’s freedom (een
motivatietoestand, die werkt als een tegenkracht voor bedreigingen van iemands vrijheid). It can be a
powerful force if groups of people feel that their freedom is compromised.
, Social power and reference groups
Another important area to consider is social power: the degree of influence an individual or
organization has among their peers and within society as a whole (de mate van invloed die een
persoon of organisatie heeft onder zijn gelijken en in de samenleving als geheel). There are six bases
of social power:
1. Reward power may be present when a person responds to the influence of the group and is
rewarded in some way (kan aanwezig zijn wanneer een persoon reageert op de invloed van
de groep en op de een of andere manier wordt beloond).
2. Coercive power means that conformity to the group is brought about through the threat of
punishment (betekent dat overeenstemming met de groep wordt bewerkstelligd door de
dreiging van straf).
3. Legitimate power is where the referent is seen to have authority by virtue of their position in
the particular context (waarbij de referent geacht wordt gezag te hebben door zijn positie in
de specifieke context), often achieved in service businesses through the use of uniforms to
show authority.
4. Expert power is when we are influenced to behave or purchase something by someone who
we recognize has particular expertise (is wanneer we worden beïnvloed om ons te gedragen
of iets te kopen door iemand van wie we weten dat hij een bepaalde expertise heeft), for
example, a doctor or scientist.
5. Referent power is similar, although the influence stems from our admiration of the qualities
of a person and how we try to imitate those qualities by copying their behaviour (is
vergelijkbaar, hoewel de invloed voortkomt uit onze bewondering voor de kwaliteiten van een
persoon en hoe we proberen die kwaliteiten te imiteren door hun gedrag te kopiëren), often
evident in the way we consider celebrities.
6. Informational power is based on logical argument and knowledge that someone may have
acquired from experience or through the nature of their job (logische argumenten en kennis
die iemand uit ervaring of door de aard van zijn werk heeft verworven). A person or group
has informational power because they know something that others would like to know.
Raven highlighted the importance of recognizing how these forms of power can be personal or
impersonal in character. Personal influences of reward and coercive power relate to the approval (or
sanction) of those close to us. For informational power, Raven suggested that it may be effective if
the information comes in an indirect form as a hint or suggestion.
Opinion leaders and opinion seekers
Rogers and Cartano (1962: 435) described opinion leaders as ‘individuals who exert an unequal
amount of influence on the decisions of others’ (personen die een ongelijke hoeveelheid invloed
uitoefenen op de beslissingen van anderen). Lazerfeld et al. (1944), in their study of the 1940 US
presidential election, found that the media had little direct influence on the public, but rather
influence flowed from the media to opinion leaders, who then passed on information to a broader
public. Direct influence by a reference group refers to direct – often face-to-face – contact between
members of a group (door een referentiegroep verwijst naar rechtstreeks - vaak face-to-face - contact
tussen leden van een groep). The idea that a small group of influential people can accelerate or stop
the adoption of a product has become central to our idea of what an opinion leader is, which
Gladwell (2001) calls ‘The Law of the Few’. He identified different people.
