Samenvatting

Summary Linguistics 3: The Study of Language

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Linguistics

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Fontys Hogeschool (Fontys)

Samenvatting van de besproken hoofdstukken van The Study of Language. Bevat niet The Story of English (het tweede gedeelte van dit vak).

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linguistics

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Linguisti cs 3: the study of language
George Yule: 7 t h editi on

Chapter 1: The Origin (p. 1 – 11)
Spoken language developed between 100,000 and 50,000 years ago, written language originated
about 5000 years ago.

o Onomatopeia: words that are similar to the noises they describe  splash, bang, buzz, etc.
o Pooh-pooh theory: words/sounds developed from the instinctive sounds people make in
emotional circumstances. These sounds are usually produced with sudden intakes of breath
 Ouch! Ah! Phew!

Human breathing while speaking is about 90% exhalation with only about 10% of time saved for
quick in-breaths.

Chapter 2: Animal & human language (p. 13 – 26)
Only humans are capable of reflexivity, which means we can use language to think and talk about
language itself.

o Displacement: being able to refer to past and future time  Yesterday I did…
o Arbitrariness: the absence of any natural connection between a word and the object  duck
is arbitrary, quack is non-arbitrary (because quack is the literal sound and the word to
describe the sound).
o Cultural transmission: the process whereby a language is passed on from one generation to
the next.
o Productivity/creativity: creating new expressions by manipulating their linguistic resources to
describe new objects and situations.
o Fixed reference: the lack of productivity in animal communication

Chapter 16: Written language (p. 247 – 260)
Pictographic  ideographic  logographic /morphographic  syllabic  consonantal  alphabetic

o Pictographic: drawings that mean a word  = sun
o Ideographic: the drawing becomes simple and has more meanings  = sun, warmth,
daylight, etc
o Logographic/morphographic: one symbol to represent the meaning of a word, the
relationship between the symbol and word is now arbitrary.  = sun
o Phonographic writing: the symbols are adapted to represent sounds.
o Syllabic writing: each symbol represents the pronunciation of a syllable.
o Consonantal alphabet: symbols representing consonant sounds and the reader filling in the
vowels (Hebrew and Arabic).
o Alphabetic writing: single symbol for a single sound.

,Chapter 5: Word formation (p. 58 – 73)
o Neologism: a new word

Not creativity/productivity: creativity is creating new expressions with already
existing words while a neologism is an entirely new word.

o Etymology: the study of the origin and history of a word.

Word formation processes

o (True) coinage: thinking up a completely new word  Kleenex – clean
o Eponym: create words from proper nouns/own names  jumbo olives – elephant
o Latin/Greek roots: thermometer (thermos + metron)
o Borrowings: taking over a word from another language  croissant
o Loan translations/calques: direct translation into the borrowing language 
übermensch becomes superman
o Compounds: joining two or more words together  sleepwalk
o Blends: joining parts of words together  smog = smoke + fog
o Clippings: reducing a word of more than one syllable to a shorter form  fax used to
be facsimile
o Hypocorisms: reducing words to one syllable, then adding -y or -ie  telly –
television
o Backformations: changing a word’s function by removing a morpheme  bulldozer –
bulldoze
o Conversion: changing a word’s function without any reduction  to bottle – a bottle
o Derivational processes: adding affixes (pre-, suf- or infixes)  unhappily
o Acronyms: taking the initial letters of a set of words  CD = compound disk

Chapter 6: Morphology (p. 75 – 91)
The definition of a morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function

Tourists

Tour + ist + s

Travel for pleasure person who plural

Minimal units of meaning grammatical function

, o Free morphemes: morphemes that can stand by themselves
o Bound morphemes: morphemes that normally cannot stand alone and are typically attached
to another form  all affixes are bound morphemes.
o Stems: free morphemes that are used with bound morphemes attached
un + dress + ed

prefix stem suffix

bound free bound

o Functional morphemes/function words: we need function words to make our sentences
grammatical  articles, copular verbs, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs,
etc
o Lexical morphemes/content words: we need content words to make our sentences
meaningful  nouns, adjectives, adverbs, lexical verbs, etc.
o Derivational morphemes: when you ass a bound morpheme to a stem to create a new word
with a new meaning. The word you’ve created is a derived word, the morpheme that was
added is a derivational morpheme.
Beauty + ify = beautify

noun derivational morpheme derived word

o Derived word vs. compound: a compound is formed with two free morphemes, a derived
word is a stem with a derivational morpheme.
o Inflectional morpheme: bound morphemes with a strictly grammatical function (indicating
tense, number, gender, etc)  Jim’s, 2 sisters, laughing, likes, been, loudest

8 inflectional morphemes

o -s: third person singular present  waits
o -ed: past tense  waited
o -ing: present participle  waiting
o -en: past participle (irregular)  eaten
o -s: plural  donuts
o –‘s: possessive  Lisa’s
o -er: comparative  shorter
o -est: superlative  shortest

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