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Samenvatting LCC (Language, Cognition & Computation)
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LCC summary2.1 The faculty of language: what is it, who has it, and how did it evolve? (Hauser, Chomsky, Fitch)
The article discusses the continuity and discontinuity between human language and animal
communication systems, focusing on the faculty of language in the broad sense (FLB). It explores
various aspects of FLB and compares them to animal communication systems, highlighting both
similarities and differences.
The author acknowledges that some studies suggest chimpanzees may possess a rudimentary theory
of mind, while other studies challenge this notion by showing that chimpanzees fail to differentiate
between ignorant and knowledgeable individuals in intentional communication. However, due to
methodological differences and small sample sizes, no firm conclusions can be drawn about mental
state attribution in animals. Interestingly, referential communication in animals appears to be more
evident in monkeys and birds than in chimpanzees.
The study of vervet monkey alarm calls and similar research on other species such as macaques,
Diana monkeys, meerkats, prairie dogs, and chickens provides insights into the faculty of language.
These studies reveal that animals produce distinct calls in response to important contexts, but the
acoustic structure of the signal alone is sufficient for listeners to respond appropriately. The
repertoire of signals is limited to present objects and events, with no evidence of creative production
for new situations. Furthermore, there is no indication that animal calling is intentional in terms of
considering the beliefs or desires of others.
Early interpretations of animal vocalizations as references to encountered objects and events have
been weakened, suggesting that if there is any referentiality, it resides in the mind of the listener
who can extract information from the acoustic structure of the call. While animals can extract
information from signals, the article highlights several reasons why additional evidence is needed
before considering such signals as precursors or homologs of human words. Human language
involves not only words but also computational procedures for constructing expressions, including
recursive properties. The acquisition and scale of human language differ significantly from non-
human primate communication, suggesting independently evolved mechanisms.
The article then addresses the capacity for discrete infinity in human language, referring to the ability
to recombine meaningful units into an unlimited variety of structures. It acknowledges that no other
species exhibits a comparable capacity, and no specific capabilities lacking in animals have been
identified thus far. The discussion touches upon the limitations of animals in acquiring natural
language on the basis of limited data, highlighting the need for constraints or biases in the learning
process. These constraints have been referred to as "innate dispositions" or "universal grammar,"
although the exact nature of these constraints remains unresolved.
The article also explores the capacity for number representation and rule learning in animals and
human infants, which can provide insights into the constraints on the faculty of language. Animals,
including human infants, demonstrate the ability to represent number, but they differ from humans
in the acquisition of the integer list. While chimpanzees can be trained to understand the meaning of
number words, their learning process differs significantly from that of human children. Chimpanzees
require extensive training and do not exhibit the same open-ended generative property observed in
human language acquisition.
Lastly, the article discusses the capacity for computing hierarchical structures and statistical
regularities in language. Natural languages go beyond local structure by including hierarchical
relationships, which require rule systems beyond finite-state grammars. Recent studies suggest that
humans and non-human primates can compute transitional probabilities for segmenting words from
,continuous acoustic streams. These computations are not unique to humans or language and are
spontaneously available in other perceptual domains.
In conclusion, while there are notable continuities between human language and animal
communication systems, there are also significant differences. Animals exhibit some aspects of
language, such as referential communication and number representation, but they lack certain key
features such as open-ended generative systems and hierarchical structures. The article emphasizes
the need for additional research to provide stronger evidence and a better understanding of the
similarities and differences between human language and animal communication systems.
Concepts
1. Faculty of Language in the Broad Sense (FLB): Refers to the cognitive ability and mechanisms
underlying human language, including its various components.
2. Continuity: The idea that there are similarities or shared characteristics between human
language and animal communication systems.
3. Discontinuity: The idea that there are fundamental differences or unique features that
distinguish human language from animal communication systems.
4. Theory of Mind: The ability to attribute mental states, such as beliefs, desires, and
intentions, to oneself and others. It involves understanding that others have thoughts and
knowledge different from one's own.
5. Referential Communication: Communication that refers to specific objects, events, or
concepts in the environment.
6. Acoustic Structure: The specific pattern of sound characteristics, such as pitch, duration, and
frequency, that make up a vocalization or signal.
7. Intentional Communication: Communication that is purposeful and takes into account the
beliefs, desires, or intentions of the listener.
8. Mental State Attribution: The ability to attribute mental states, such as knowledge or
ignorance, to others.
9. Vervet Monkey Alarm Calls: Vocalizations produced by vervet monkeys in response to
specific dangers or threats, which serve as warning signals to other group members.
10. Computational Procedures: Processes or operations involved in constructing expressions or
sentences in a language.
11. Recursive Properties: The ability to embed structures within structures, allowing for the
generation of an unlimited variety of sentences.
12. Acquisition: The process of learning or acquiring language or other cognitive abilities.
13. Discrete Infinity: The capacity to combine discrete elements or units in an unlimited number
of ways to create new structures or expressions.
14. Constraints: Limitations or principles that guide the learning or acquisition of language.
15. Biases: Innate predispositions or preferences that shape the learning process.
16. Universal Grammar: The hypothetical innate linguistic knowledge or set of principles that
underlie the acquisition and structure of human language.
17. Number Representation: The ability to represent and understand numerical quantities.
18. Rule Learning: The ability to recognize and apply patterns or rules in language or other
cognitive domains.
19. Open-Ended Generative Property: The capacity to produce and understand an infinite
number of novel and meaningful expressions.
20. Hierarchical Structures: Structures in language that involve nested relationships or levels of
organization, such as phrases within sentences.
21. Statistical Regularities: Patterns or probabilities in language or other perceptual domains
that can be used to extract information and make predictions.
, 2.2 Evolution, brain, and the nature of language (Berwick, Friederici, Chomsky and Bolhuis)
The study of language and its evolution poses complex challenges. Language involves a set of atomic
elements called the lexicon, which are word-like units fundamental to linguistic computations.
However, the lexicon raises evolutionary questions as it differs greatly from animal communication
systems. While chimpanzees use labels for multiple purposes without distinguishing between them,
human infants demonstrate a constrained and nuanced usage of words. Even the simplest words in
the human lexicon do not merely denote mind-independent entities but rely on cognitive processes
and interpretations of the world.
The acquisition of language and the meanings of words present remarkable feats of learning and
understanding. Humans can acquire language even under sensory limitations, such as blindness, and
grasp concepts with subtlety. However, the evolutionary analysis of words and language acquisition
faces significant challenges. Comparisons between human words and primate vocal calls reveal
limitations in the capacity for expression and vocal learning in non-human species. The absence of
symbolic behavior in extinct Homo species further complicates the search for an evolutionary
account of words.
Advancements in neuroimaging have shed light on the neural architecture underlying language
processing. Core language computations, believed to be universal, involve specific brain regions and
neural networks. Hierarchically structured sequences, a characteristic of language, engage Broca's
area (BA 44) and the posterior superior temporal cortex (pSTC), along with fiber tracts connecting
them. The dorsal pathway between BA 44 and the pSTC supports syntactic computations, while the
ventral pathway involving BA 45 and portions of the temporal cortex supports semantic processes.
The processing of hierarchically complex sentences activates Broca's area, indicating its role in
structure-building. Artificial grammar studies reveal parallels between human and animal processing,
but natural language processing additionally involves the posterior STC. The interaction between BA
44 and the posterior STC facilitates syntactic interpretation. Investigations into meaning assignment
show that the anterior temporal cortex represents semantic-conceptual knowledge, while sensory,
motor, and language aspects are represented in other cortical areas.
In summary, the study of language, words, and their evolution presents intricate challenges. The
lexicon, though essential for language, differs from animal communication systems. The acquisition
of language and the meanings of words demonstrate remarkable cognitive abilities. Neuroimaging
studies reveal the neural mechanisms underlying language processing, with specific brain regions and
neural networks supporting syntactic and semantic processes. Understanding the complexities of
language and its evolution requires interdisciplinary efforts and further exploration of the unique
features that distinguish human language from other forms of communication.
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