Samenvatting
Samenvatting verplichte literatuur Organisaties.
Samenvatting van de verplichte literatuur van organisaties. Dit is inclusief de artikelen. De samenvatting is volledig in het Engels.
[Meer zien]Voorbeeld 3 van de 57 pagina's
Voorbeeld 3 van de 57 pagina's
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Chapter 1Introduction: Definitions and conceptions
Organization: Elements, a Definition and Images
As an indication of the lack of consensus over the meaning of organization, we can consider
several of the leading texts on organization theory.
Scott’s Elements of organization
Social structure: those activities, relationships, and interactions that take on a regular
pattern. Most organizations have standard techniques, practices, and methods that
are repeated day in and out. Many of these aspects of the social structure are
explicitly defined in job descriptions and organizational charts formal social
structure. The informal social structure contains those patterned activities and
relationships that emerge naturally, and which are created by organizational
members.
Participants: these are humans who ‘people’ the organization. Most organizations rely
heavily on the human factor of production. Organizations try to figure out how to
extract human energy.
Goals: conceptions of desired ends. What is the organization trying to achieve? We
speak of the goals of the organization. Organizational goals are human goals. Since
goals are formulated by humans, organizational participants may not share the same
goals.
Technology: the means used by the organization to transform the raw materials of the
organization into some final product. All organizations use particular techniques.
Environment: all things outside the boundaries of the organization that are either
shaped by or influence a particular organization.
Scott devised a scheme for categorizing the vast number of organization theories, the
scheme is based on three perspectives:
The rational system perspective says that organizations are collectivities oriented to the
pursuit of relatively specified goals and exhibiting relatively formalized social structures.
The natural system perspective views organizations as collectivities whose participants
share a common interest in the survival of the system and who engage in collective activities,
informally structured, to secure this end.
The open systems perspective says that organizations are coalitions of shifting interest
groups that develop goals by negotiations. The structure of the coalitions, its activities, and
its outcomes are strongly influenced by environmental factors.
Hall’s definition of organization
“An organization is a collectivity with relatively identifiable boundary, a normative order, ranks of authority,
communications system, and membership coordinating systems. This collectivity exists, on a relatively
continuous basis in an environment, and engages in activities that are usually related to a set of goals. The
activities have outcomes for organizational members, the organization itself, and for society.”
Collectivity means a group of humans who have something in common. There will always
be some tension between the particular interests of individual members and the larger
organizational objective or goal.
Boundaries distinguish who is inside and who is outside the organization.
Normative order (cultural dimension) implies shared beliefs and values about the
appropriate way to behave and accomplish organizational activities.
Authority, communication, and coordination systems are additional means to convert
individuals into a cohesive collectivity.
,1. Structures (social structure elements)
2. Processes (active processes that are goal directed)
3. Outcomes (consequences of organizational structure)
Morgan’s images of organization
How we define, understand, and conceptualize organizations depends on our mental images
of the essential shape and feature of organizations. Most definitions and theories of
organization can be associated with a particular organizational metaphor
(machines/organisms/brains etc.)
The machine metaphor views organizations as technical instruments used to produce
some outcome. The elements of the organization are parts of a structure that work
together with mechanical-like efficiency to achieve a particular goal.
Organization as an organism. Implies that organizations are akin to living things that
need resources to stay alive and flourish. The survival of the organizational organism
is heavily dependent upon the level of competition and resources in the ecosystem.
Organization as brains. Information-processing, decision-making, or learning entities.
Organizations are also cultural systems. As collectivities of human beings who act
and interact, some shared set of values and beliefs emerges.
Others use the metaphor political systems. Conflict and competition for resources
between groups that have different values, interests, and priorities.
Organizations as psychic prisons. Their rules and methods may shape our psyche
and control our mental processes. They limit our freedom of thought.
Organizations can also be seen as instruments of domination. The organization
becomes the instrument that advances the interests of one group at the expense of
another.
There is an eighth metaphor: organization as flux and transformation. The primary
assumption driving this metaphor is that organizations are in constant state of flux or
change. Reason can be that the flux and transformation is generated by several
fundamental organizational tensions.
Classical Social Theory and Organizational Analysis
Our understanding of organizational structure and process can also be enhanced by
considering the contribution of classical sociological theory.
Karl Marx
He believed that an understanding of the human relationships guiding economic production
was the key to social analysis. Because labor depends on capital for its survival, it is an
asymmetric and dependent relationship that allows for the subordination and exploitation of
the working class.
Organizational structures and strategies are designed primarily to control the mental
and physical labor of workers.
Organizational theories influenced by Marx typically employ the organization as
instrument of domination metaphor.
The development of increasingly effective organizational means of exploitation had
the paradoxical effect of galvanizing the collective opposition.
Workers under capitalism suffer from alienation (a sense of separation and
detachment) because they are unable to exercise their distinctive abilities.
Durkheim
His general concern was the bases of order and solidarity in society.
Social solidarity in traditional agricultural society was based on the similarity in life
experiences derived from common activities in a rural community, it develops a
common set of beliefs and sentiments that serve to encourage consensus and
integration while minimizing individual differences and social conflict mechanical
solidarity.
, A new form of solidarity emerges based on interdependence (differentiation).
Members of society depend upon each other for the fulfillment of their needs. The
network of interdependence results in the rise of organic solidarity.
Durkheim concluded that all forms of social organization required social integration and
social solidarity. This would be based on a collective conscience of shared beliefs and
sentiments among organizational members that would serve as a normative form of social
control.
Weber
Focused upon the forms of social organization and their corresponding forms of authority. He
was interested in the way these authority differences were granted legitimacy.
Authority based on: charisma, tradition or rational-legal. Rational legal authority is
under modern industrial society (rationalization). Authority relations were accepted
because they were regarded as the necessary means to accomplish specific goals.
Objective structures designed for efficiency may conflict with the subjective desires of
humans for freedom and autonomy.
Contemporary Social Theory and Organizational Analysis
Three major theoretical perspectives in sociology have been applied to a wide variety of
social phenomena including organizations.
Structural Functionalism
Parsons employed a model of social system functions (AGIL – adaption, goal attainment,
integration, and latency). Parsons conceived of organizations as institutions within the larger
society that were responsible for carrying out a particular function.
Merton referred manifest functions (the obvious and officially stated purpose of an
organization or institution. There are also latent functions (unintended, unexpected, and
unannounced functions of an organization).
In educational institutions the manifest function is to train and educate the population
to be productive members of the society. A latent function is reducing the
unemployment rate.
Problem is its failure to consider the tensions and contradictions produced by organizations
that ultimately contribute to social disorder and instability. Contradiction and paradox are a
fundamental dynamic of all organizations.
Conflict theory
Based on the assumption that all societies are characterized by ongoing conflict between
groups and persistent social change. This is due to the fact that:
1) Individuals develop different political interests based on racial, ethnic, class, religious,
gender, occupational, or regional affiliation.
2) Socially valued resources tend to be relatively scarce, which generates conflict and
competition over access to and the distribution of these resources.
3) Social institutions are organized to serve the interests of those who own and control
the scarce resources.
4) The struggle between those who possess and those who do not possess the
resources creates instability and change.
Organizations are made up of members who occupy different positions, they carry out
different roles, work in different departments etc. organizational members will develop a
variety of conflicting political interests and may engage in various forms of competition.
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