Part One
Civilization around 3500BC, empires by 2400 BC > unified legal systems, religion and culture.
Advanced civilization in Egypt, Acheminid Empire. After Alexander the Great Greek language and
culture. Culture remained more Hellenic than Latin. Fall of western Rome > Byzantine empire.
Imperial consolidation > religious consolidation, monotheism (Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity)
Council of Chalcedon (451): two natures of Christ. Monophysites: Coptic/Armenian/Syrian. Islam
unified Greco-Christian and Iranian-Zoroastrianism’s lands.
Chapter 1: The rise and expansion of Islam
Byzantium: cultural and political traditions (Greek/Roman/Christian), professional army, bureaucracy.
6th/7th century weakened. Rivalry with Sasanians (>raise taxes), religious divisions (persecution).
Sasanian empire: absolute monarchy, scribal class, professional army. Zoroastrianism ore ceremonial,
lack of feelings of loyalty. Impact on Islam: Greek legacy, Iranian bureaucratic tradition, concepts of
emperor.
Pre-Islamic Arabia
Desert, home of Arabs (semitic). Lacked central organization, tribes, nomads. Competition for
resources > warfare. Cultural unity: ethos of bravery and honor > poetry. Christian tribal
confederations client states of Byzantium and Sasanians. Monotheism in Yemen. Arabia ore
important as trading route > mecca commercial center, religious site (Ka’ba pilgrimage). Leading
clans from Quraysh tribe. Mecca in state of transition from tribal to urbanism (no set of values yet)
Muhammad and the foundations of Islam
Muhammad ibn Abdullah born in 570. Hashim clan, Quraysh tribe. Raised by uncle, married Khadija,
merchant. Solitude in the mountains>summoned to mission (night of power), recite divine messages.
Revelations recorded by companions (> Quran: direct word of God). Sense of urgency and
commitment. Meccan period: shorter suras, theological foundations, uncompromising monotheism,
worship and behaviour, day of judgment. Challenge social/economic/religious structure > opposition.
Muhammed invited as mediator in Medina > hijrah 622. Also political leadership. Jews expelled, raids
on caravans. Forces grow, alliances. 630 entry in Mecca. Medina developed into small state,
instructions on organization. Concept of ummah (community).
The Arab conquests and the first empire
Muslim factions compete, question of leadership after Muhammad’s death in 632. Abu Bakr (632-
634) first caliph (religious and political leader). First four caliphs Rashidun (rightly guided). Umar
authorized attacks against Byzantine and Sassanian empires. 637 Sasanians defeated at Qadisiyya,
635 Damascus, 641 Egypt. North-Africa, Spain, battle of Poitiers 732. Sasanian empire destroyed,
Byzantium retained control. Islamic monotheism fit within existing traditions, tolerance (dhimmis,
freedom), taxes less burdensome, local customs undisturbed.
The first civil war and the end of the Rashidun caliphate
Uthman murdered in 656 > succession issue > civil war > Ali caliph (cousin/son in law), represented
coalition of interests calling for greater equality. Contested by Mu’awiyah > battle of Siffin (657),
inconclusive > part Ali’s forces withdraws support > Mu’awiyah expands. Ali murdered in 661.
From Arab exclusivism to Islamic universalism: The Umayyad and Abbasid empires
Mu’awiyah founded Umayyad dynasty. Pragmatic ruler, center to Damascus, Byzantine practices.
Arab exclusivism (Islam equated with Arab descent) > internal dissension. Revolution > Abbasids
(750-1258). Development of institutions, legal system. Interaction cultures and religions. First 150
years: stability, prosperity, universalism > rich and diverse civilization. Universalist policy adopted >
cosmopolitanism. Capital to Baghdad > contact with Iranian imperial traditions. Administration
modelled on Sasanian government. Absolute monarchy, centralization. 8th century: North Africa
autonomous states. 9th century: independent and short-lived dynasties.
