This document contains questions and answers regarding the content of the course. This helped me in passing the course easily. The questions include tutorials, lectures (and practicals).
Case 1
What are the three layers Ectoderm outer layer, forms the skin, hair, nails, brain, spinal cord,
formed during the PNS.
gastrulation? Mesoderm middle layer, forms the muscles, bones, connective
tissue, notochord, kidney, gonads, circulatory system.
Endoderm inner layer, forms the epithelial lining of the GI-tracts,
liver, lung, pancreas.
Where does the primitive The primitive streak forms on the surface of the epiblast. This streak
streak forms and what elongates and at the cranial end it proliferates in the primitive node.
does it forms eventually? The primitive groove develops further with a small depression in the
primitive node (primitive pit).
What causes the neural The notochord causes the ectoderm above it to form a thick flat plate
plate formation? of cells called the neural plate. This neural plate extends and then
bends back on itself and seals itself into a tube known as the neural
tube that fits underneath the ectoderm. The borders of where the
neural plate has been, get pulled under with it, and becomes the
neural crest.
How does the notochord The mesoderm forms a thin rod of cells called the notochord.
form?
What does the neural tube The brain and spinal cord (CNS). The caudal portion of the neural plate
forms? will give rise to the spinal cord and the cranial expansion will give rise
to the brain.
What does the neural crest The peripheral nervous system (PNS).
cells form?
How does the ventricular The neural canal in the neural tube will expand dorsally to form the 4 th
system forms? ventricle. The part that does not expand stays superior to the 4 th
ventricle and forms the cerebral aqueduct. The 4 th ventricle narrows
and becomes the spinal cord. The lateral ventricles and the 3 rd
ventricle is formed by expanding of the neural canal cranially.
What are the three brain Prosencephalon (forebrain)
vesicles? Mesencephalon (midbrain)
Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
What structures are Prosencephalon Telencephalon & diencephalon
formed from the 3 main - Cerebrum,
brain vesicles? - Thalamus, hypothalamus
Mesencephalon mesencephalon
- Midbrain
Rhombencephalon metencephalon & myelencephalon
- Pons, cerebrum
- Medulla oblongata
From where does the brain From the wall of the fluid filled vesicles of the brain. Their wall consists
develop? of 2 layers; the ventricular and marginal zone.
What happens in the 1. cell in the ventricular zone extends a process that reaches upward
ventricular and marginal toward the pia (marginal zone).
zone? 2. the nucleus of the cell migrates upwards and its DNA gets copied at
the pial surface.
3. The copied nucleus settles back to the ventricular surface.
4. the cell retracts its arm from the pial surface.
5. mitosis of the cell.
Symmetrical cell division Causes the formation of 2 new stem cells that can divide again and
again. Vertical
,Asymmetrical cell division Causes the formation of neuron progenitor cells / glial cell (most
located at the pial surface due to notch expression) and the cell most
located at the ventricular surface causes the formation of a new stem
cell due to numb expression at the ventricular surface. Horizontal
Which types of migration - Radial migration; away from the VZ through the processes of
occur of the progenitor the radial glial cells.
cells? - Tangential migration; for the cortical interneurons and
oligodendrocytes.
How is the cortex formed? The migrating cells reside in the subplate layer, from where the cells
migrate to their destined place. First layer VI is formed, then V, etc.
Now the cortex is formed the grey matter.
Eventually the radial glial cells retract their processes and the subplate
goes away white matter.
What are the three outer (Skull)
layers of the brain? Dura mater
Arachnoid mater
Pia mater
How does cell It depends on intrinsic and extrinsic factors that specify gene
differentiation occur? expression.
1st differentiation: neuronal differentiation
2nd differentiation: astrocyte differentiation
3rd differentiation: oligodendrocyte differentiation
How do neurons develop? The neurons develop from the neuroblast. First neurites sprout of the
cell body, which will eventually become recognizable dendrites and
axons.
Lamellipodia & filopodia start to form from the neurite and search for
possible targets. Once a target is found, the neurites starts to form out
of the lamellipodia. One neurite is destined to become the axon and it
will start to proliferate into a long neurite. The other remaining
neurites stay as small extensions and become dendrites.
How does notch affect Notch inhibits the formation of a neuron and the formation of a
neuronal cell oligodendrocyte.
differentiation? Notch promotes astrocyte formation.
What are neurotrophic Neurons extend their axons to target cells, which secrete low levels of
factors? neurotrophic factors. This neurotrophic factor binds to specific
receptors and is internalized and transported to the cell body where it
promotes neuronal survival.
Neurons that fail to receive adequate amounts of neurotrophic factors
die through a program of cell death.
How does synapse When the axon terminal comes in contact with its target, a synapse is
formation work in the formed.
PNS? 1. Induction of a cluster of postsynaptic receptors under the site of
nerve muscle contact. This is triggered by interaction between
proteins secreted by the axon terminal and the target membrane.
2. One of these proteins is called Agrin the basal lamina layer. This
binds to Musk on muscle cell membrane. Musk communicates with
Rapsyn which gathers Ach receptors at the synapse which excites
synaptic transmission and plasticity.
Ach is released in the PNS
How does synapse A dendritic filopodium contacts an axon. This contact leads to the
formation work in CNS? recruitment of synaptic vesicles and active zone proteins to the
, presynaptic membrane. Neurotransmitter receptors then accumulate
postsynaptically.
Glutamate is released in the CNS
What is long-term Strong NMDA receptor activation leads to LTP, because the strong
potentiation? NMDA receptor causes Ca2+ influx and the insertion of AMPA receptor
into the synaptic membrane.
What is long-term Synapses whose activity is weakened and then eliminated. This causes
depression? less Ca2+ influx which trigger LTD. Here AMPA receptors are
eliminated and this loss of synapse activity causes retraction of the
presynaptic axon.
What are the stages of 1. Sensorimotor stage birth-18/24 months
Visual andbrain
auditory
development
cortices are
after
developed and form their synapses.
birth? 2. Pre operational stage 2-7 years
It starts to think and uses words and pictures for the representation of those thoughts, no higher cognitive
Angular gyrus and Broca’s region are developed and form their synapses.
3. Concrete operational stage 7-11 years
- Prefrontal cortex starts to form connections and develops
higher cognitive functions.
4. formal operational stage 12+
- Maturation of the prefrontal cortex
What is pruning? This is the dying of the overproduced synapses during development.
Only the essential synapses remain intact.
Where are neural stem In the hippocampus in a region called neural niches.
cells found in the adult
body?
What is axotomy? Most common damage is damage to the axons, because they are long
and easier to target. When a axon is damaged, the axon terminal will
degrade and lose their function as a pre-synaptic cell. This trigger an
event called Wallerian degradation.
What is the Wallerian It is a process where the whole endplate of a neuron will be degraded
degradation? In CNS? and the connection to the target cell will be lost. The degradation of
the myelin sheaths will causes macrophages to cause a local
inflammation. Macrophages, neutrophils and glial cells will form the
glial scar at the site of damage. This glial scar prevents the renewal of
the damaged axon. This leads to the degradation of the whole axon.
What is the difference In the PNS Schwann cells produce one myelin sheath while
between regeneration in oligodendrites in CNS produce several myelin sheaths. Schwann cells
PNS and CNS? maintain their shape when axotomy occurs and this promotes the
regrowth of the axon past the still resistant myelin sheath. In CNS
oligodendrocytes lose the myelin sheaths of the injured axon part and
they are degraded, there is no pathway to start regrowing and
therefore it is a target for the glial scar.
What is the function of Laminin is an extracellular matrix protein which surrounds the
laminin? Schwann cells. Laminin binds with axonal integrins in regeneration.
Case 2
What contains the Nasal cavity, oral cavity pharynx larynx trachea primary
conducting zone? bronchi secondary/lobar bronchi tertiary/ segmental bronchi
bronchioles terminal bronchioles
What contains the Respiratory bronchioles alveolar ducts alveoli blood
respiratory zone?
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