Chapter 1 – Individual Change
INTRODUCTION
This chapter covers the following topics, each of which takes a different perspective on individual
change:
-Learning and the process of change – In what ways can models of learning help us understand individual
change?
-The behavioural approach to change – How can we change people’s behavior?
-The cognitive approach to change – How change can be made attractive to people and how people can
achieve the results they want.
-The psychodynamic approach to change – What’s actually going on for people?
-The humanistic psychology approach to change – How can people maximize the benefits of change?
-Personality and change – How do we differ in our responses to change?
-Managing change in self and others – If we can understand people’s internal experience and we know
what changes need to happen, what is the best way to effect change?
LEARNING AND THE PROCESS OF CHANGE
Bunchanan and Huczynski (1985) define learning as ‘the process of acquiring knowledge through
experience which leads to a change in behavior’. Learning is not just the acquisition of knowledge, but
the application of it through doing something different in the world. Many change scenarios require that
you learn something new.
As you go through the process of learning something new, an external assessment of your
performance would no doubt confirm a reduction in your efficiency and effectiveness for a period of
time. And if one were to map your internal state your confidence levels most likely dip as well. Obviously
this anxiety falls over time.
Conscious and Unconscious Competence and Incompetence
Another way of looking at what happens when you learn something new is to view it from a Gestalt
perspective. The Gestalt psychologists suggested that people have a worldview that entails some things
being in the foreground and others being in the background of their consciousness.
When you are unconsciously competent, you perform the right activities unconsciously.
However, as soon as you have to change something, and have to learn something new, you are
consciously incompetent. You know you have to practice or trial and error in order to become
competent (consciously). However, as I am consciously competent for a certain period of time, these
tasks may recede to the background and I become unconsciously competent.
Of course there is another cycle, not starting at unconscious competence, but one of starting at
unconscious incompetence. This is where you do not know what you do not know, and the only way of
realizing is by making a mistake, or when someone kind enough and brave enough tells you. From self-
reflection or form others’ feedback your unconscious incompetence becomes conscious, and you are
able to being the cycle of learning.
Kolb’s Learning Cycle
David Kolb developed a model of experiential learning, which unpacked how learning occurs, and what
stages a typical individual goes through in order to learn. It shows that we learn though a process of
doing and thinking.
Kolb saw learning as a cycle through which the individual has a concrete experience. The
individual does something, reflects upon his or her specific experience, make some sense of the
experience by drawing some general conclusions, and plans to do things differently in the future.
, In addition, research by Kolb suggested that different individuals have different sets of
preferences or styles in the way they learn. The activist wants to experience what it is that he needs to
learn. The reflector likes to think first. He likes to reflect, perhaps on others’ experience, before he takes
action. The theorists might like to look at theory before experiencing. The pragmatists have the desire to
relate what is happening to their own circumstances. They are interested in how something will help
achieve their goals.
Not only do we all have a learning preference but also the theory suggests that we can get stuck
within our preference. So activists might go from one experience to another, not thinking or review how
the last one went, or planning what they would do differently. The reflector may spend inordinate
amounts of time conducting project and performance reviews, but not necessarily embedding any
learning into the next project. Theorists can spend a lot of time making connections and seeing the
bigger picture but they may not actually get around doing anything. Pragmatists may be so intent on
ensuring that it is relevant that they can easily dismiss something that does not at first appear that useful
THE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH TO CHANGE
The behavioral approach to change very much focuses on how one individual can change another
individual’s behavior using reward and punishment, to achieve intended results. If the intended results
are not being achieved, an analysis of the individual’s behavior will lead to an understanding of what is
contributing to success and what is contributing to non-achievement. To elicit the preferred behavior the
individual must be encouraged to behave that way, and discouraged from behaving any other way. This
approach has its advantages and disadvantages.
Classical conditioning (Pavlov) is when an unconditioned stimulus leads to an unconditioned
response. If neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are associated, neutral stimulus (now
conditioned stimulus) leads to unconditioned response (now a conditioned response).
Using the notion of rewards and punishments, additions and subtractions of positive and
negative stimuli, four possible situations arise when you want to encourage a specific behavior.
In any project of planned behavior change an number of steps will be required:
1. The identification of behaviors that impact performance.
2. The measurement of those behaviors. How much of these behaviors are currently in use?
3. A functional analysis of the behaviors – that is, the identification of the component parts that
make up each behavior.
4. The generation of a strategy of intervention – what rewards and punishments should be linked
to the behaviors that impact performance.
5. An evaluation of the effectiveness of the intervention strategy.
Reinforcement Strategies
When generating reward strategies at step 4, the following possibilities must be borne in mind.
Financial reinforcement
Traditionally financial reinforcement is the most explicit of the reinforcement mechanisms used in
organizations today. The use of bonus payments, prizes and other tangible rewards is common. To be
effective the financial reinforcement needs to be clearly, closely and visibly linked to the behaviors and
performance that the organization requires.
,Non-financial reinforcement
Non-financial reinforcement tends to take the form of feedback given to an individual about
performance on specific tasks. The more specific the feedback is, the more impactful the reinforcement
can be. This feedback can take both positive and negative forms.
Social reinforcement takes the form of interpersonal actions: that is, communications of either a
positive or a negative nature. Praise, compliments, general recognition, perhaps greater (or lesser)
attention can all act as positive reinforcement for particular behaviors or outcomes. Similarly social
reinforcement could also take the form of ‘naming and shaming’ for ineffective performance. Social
reinforcement is not only useful for performance issues, but can be extremely useful when an
organizational culture change is under way. Group approval or disapproval can be a determining factor in
defining what behaviors are acceptable or unacceptable within a culture.
Motivation and Behavior
Douglas McGregor introduced Theory X and Theory Y, which looked at underlying management
assumptions about an organization’s workforce.
Theory X was built on the assumption that workers are not inherently motivated to work, seeing
it as a necessary evil, and therefore needing close supervision. Theory Y stated that human beings
generally have a need and desire to work and, given the right environment, are more than willing to
contribute to an organization’s success. McGregor’s research appeared to show that those managers
who exhibited Theory Y beliefs, were more successful in eliciting good performance for their people.
Frederick Herzberg suggested that workers have two sets of drivers or motivators: a desire to
avoid pain or deprivation (hygiene) and a desire to learn and develop (motivators). His work suggested
that many organizations provided the former but not the latter.
THE COGNITIVE APPROACH TO CHANGE
Cognitive theory is founded on the premise that our emotions and our problems are a result of the way
we think. Individuals react in the way that they do because of the way they appraise the situation they
are in. By changing their thought processes, individuals can change the way they respond to situations.
Out of these approaches has grown a way of looking at change within individuals in a very
purposeful way. Essentially individuals need to look at the way they limit themselves through adhering to
old ways of thinking, and replace that with new ways of being. This approach is focused on the results
that you want to achieve although crucial to their achievement is ensuring that there is alignment
throughout cause and effect chain. The cognitive approach does not refer to external stimuli and the
responses to the stimuli. It is more concerned with what individuals plan to achieve and how they go
about this.
Achieving Results
Key questions in achieving results in an organizational context are:
Self-concept and values: what are my core values and how do they dovetail with those of my
organization?
Beliefs and attitudes: what are my limiting beliefs and attitudes and with what do I replace
them?
Feelings: what is my most effective state of being to accomplish my goals and how do I access it?
Behaviors: what specifically do I need to be doing to achieve my goals and what is my first step?
Results: what specific outcomes do I want and what might get in the way?
,Setting Goals
The cognitive approach advocates the use of goals. The assumption is that the clearer the goal, the
greater the likelihood of achievement.
Making Sense of Our Results
The cognitive approach suggests we pay attention to the way in which we talk to ourselves about results.
Once we have identified our usual way of talking to ourselves we can look at how these internal
conversations with ourselves limit us, then consider changing the script.
Techniques for Change
The cognitive approach has generated numerous techniques for changing the beliefs of people and
thereby improving their performance.
Positive listing
Simply list all the positive qualities you have, such as good feelings, good experiences, good results, areas
of skills, knowledge and expertise. By accepting that these are all part of you, you can reinforce all these
positive thoughts, feelings and perceptions, which then lead to enhanced beliefs.
Affirmations
An affirmation is a positive statement describing the way that you want to be. It is important that the
statement is personal, present tense, positive and potent.
Visualizations
Visualizations are very similar to affirmations but focus on a positive present mental image. Effective
visualizations require you to enter a relaxed state where you imagine a specific example of the way you
want to be. You imagine what you and others would see, what would be heard and what would be felt.
Using all your senses you imagine yourself achieving the specific goal.
Reframing
Reframing is a technique for reducing feelings and thoughts that impact negatively on your performance.
Pattern breaking
Pattern breaking is a technique of physically or symbolically taking attention away from a negative state
and focusing it on a positive.
Detachment
Imagine a time when you did not like who you were. See yourself in that state, then imagine yourself
stepping outside or away from your body, leaving all the negativity behind and becoming quite calm and
detached and more rational. When you next catch yourself being in one of those moods, try stepping
outside of yourself.
Anchoring and resource states
These are two techniques where you use a remembered positive experience from the past which has all
the components of success. Really enter into that experience, then pinch yourself and repeat a word that
comes to mind. Rerun the experience and pinch yourself and say the word. Now try it the other way,
pinch yourself and say the word – and the experience should return.
, Rational analysis
Rational analysis is based on the notion that our beliefs are not necessarily rational. Rational analysis
suggests you write down all the reasons that are incorrect. You need to be specific and not generalize.
You need to set measurable criteria, objectively based, and you need to use your powers of logic. By
continuously proving that this is an irrational belief you will eventually come to disbelieve it.
THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO CHANGE
The word ‘psychodynamic’ is based on the idea that when facing change in the external world, an
individual can experience a variety of internal psychological states.
The Kübler-Ross Model
Kübler-Ross’ work was based on her experience with terminally ill patients. She realized that patients –
given the necessary conditions – would typically go through five stages as they came to terms with their
prognosis. The stages were denial, anger, bargaining, depression and finally acceptance.
1.Denial
People faces with such potentially catastrophic change would often not be able to accept the
information and deny it. They would become emotionally numb and have a sense of disbelief.
2.Anger
When people allow themselves to acknowledge what is happening they enter into the second stage,
typically that of anger. Anger and frustration can be focused externally, but for some of us it is ourselves
we blame. In some ways we can see this process as a continuation of our not wanting to accept the
change and of wanting to do something, anything, other than fully believe it. Anger is yet another way of
displacing our real feelings.
3.Bargaining
When they have exhausted themselves by attacking others (or themselves) people may still want to
wrest back some control of the situation or of their fate, bargaining. Once again we can see this stage as
a deflection of the true gravity of the situation. This is bargaining, perhaps verging on panic. The person
is desperately looking around for something, anything, to remedy the situation.
4.Depression
When it becomes clear that no amount of bargaining is going to provide an escape from the situation,
perhaps the true momentousness of it kicks in, depression. By depression we mean mourning or grieving
for loss. For some, this depression can take the form of apathy or a sense of pointlessness. For others it
can take the form of sadness, and for some a mixture of intense emotions and disassociated states.
5.Acceptance
Kübler-Ross saw many people move out of their depression and enter into the fifth stage of acceptance.
It is a stage where people can in some ways come to terms with the reality of their situation and the
inevitability of what is happening to them. People have a sense of being fully in touch with their feelings
about the situation, their hopes and fears, their anxieties.
Virginia Satir Model
Virginia Satir’s model has a number of stages and also highlights two key events that disturb or move an
individual’s experience along: the foreign element and the transforming idea.
