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Biology, A Global Approach, Nederlandse samenvatting 10e druk, Campbell, e.a.

Name: Biology, A Global Approach, Nederlandse samenvatting 10e druk, Campbell, e.a.
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Wat is evolutie?

Antwoord: Geleidelijke verandering in de genetische samenstelling van een populatie in de loop der generaties.

Wat is adaptie?

Antwoord: is geërfd kenmerk van een organisme waardoor diens overleving en reproductie in specifieke milieus verbetert.

wat is natuurlijke selectie?

Antwoord: een proces waarbij organismen met bepaalde erfelijke kenmerken een hogere overlevings- en voortplantingskans hebben dan organismen met andere kenmerken.

Wat is kunstmatige selectie?

Antwoord: het selectief telen van gedomesticeerde planten en dieren waarbij het voorkomen van gewilde eigenschappen bevorderd wordt.

Wanneer kan natuurlijke selectie plaatsvinden? (3 dingen)

Antwoord: * natuurlijke selectie kan ontstaan doordat er twee organismen met elkaar omgaan in hetzelfde milieu. * kan alleen overdraagbare karakteristieke kenmerken verminderen. * natuurlijke selectie vindt altijd plaats, aangezien het milieu ook veranderd.

Welke drie hoofdmechanismen kan een allel-frequentie veranderen?

Antwoord: * Natuurlijke selectie * Genetische strekking * Genetische stroom

Wat is micro-evolutie

Antwoord: Evolutionaire verandering onder het soortniveua; verandering over generaties in de allelfrequentie binnen een populatie

Wat is mutatie

Antwoord: is een verandering in de nucleotidevolgorde in het DNA van een organisme die uiteindelijk leidt tot genetische diversiteit.

Welke drie observaties beschrijft het boek van Darwin?

Antwoord: * De eenheid van het leven * De diversiteit van het leven * De overeenkomst tussen organismen en hun omgeving.

10.

Er zijn drie mechanismen die bijdragen aan verschillen tussen individuen. welke drie?

Antwoord: *Crossing over * het verdelen van genen over geslachtscellen * het samenbrengen van willekeurige geslachtscellen

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“BIOLOGY: A GLOBAL
APPROACH”
NEDERLANDSE
SAMENVATTING
Campbell, Urry, Cain, Wasserman, Minorsky, Jackson

MICHELLE WARMERDAM
10E DRUK
Pearson, 2015

,Inhoud
Inleiding ..................................................................................................................................................10
Chapter 1: Biology and its themes .........................................................................................................11
1.1 The study of life reveals common themes ...................................................................................11
1.2 The core theme: evolution accounts for the unity and diversity of life.........................................14
1.3 In studying nature, scientists make observations and form and test hypotheses .......................16
1.4 Science benefits from a cooperative approach and diverse viewpoints .....................................18
Chapter 2: Atoms and molecules ...........................................................................................................19
2.1 Matter consists of chemical elements in pure form and in combinations called compounds ......19
2.2 An element’s properties depend on the structure of its atoms ....................................................19
2.3 The formation and function of molecules depend on chemical bonding between atoms ...........20
2.4 Chemical reactions make and break chemical bonds .................................................................21
Chapter 3: The chemistry of water .........................................................................................................22
3.1 Polar covalent bonds in water molecules result in hydrogen bonding ........................................22
3.2 Four emergent properties of water contribute to Earth’s suitability for life ..................................22
3.3 Acidic and basic conditions affect living organisms .....................................................................24
Chapter 4: Carbon: the basis of molecular diversity ..............................................................................25
4.1 Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds .................................................................25
4.2 Carbon atoms can form diverse molecules by bonding to four other atoms ...............................25
4.3 A few chemical groups are key to molecular function .................................................................26
Chapter 5: Biological macromolecules and lipids ..................................................................................27
5.1 Macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers ..................................................................27
5.2 Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building material .....................................................................27
5.3 Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules .................................................................28
5.4 Proteins include a diversity of structures, resulting in a wide range of functions ........................29
5.5 Nucleic acids store, transmit, and help express hereditary information ......................................31
5.6 Genomics and proteomics have transformed biological inquiry and applications.......................32
Chapter 6: Energy and life .....................................................................................................................33
6.1 An organism’s metabolism transforms matter and energy, subject to the laws of
thermodynamics .................................................................................................................................33
6.2 The free-energy change of a reaction tells us whether or not the reaction occurs spontaneously
...........................................................................................................................................................34
6.3 ATP powers cellular work by coupling exergonic reactions to endergonic reactions .................34
6.4 Enzymes speed up metabolic reactions by lowering energy barriers .........................................35
6.5 Regulation of enzyme activity helps control metabolism .............................................................37
Chapter 7: Cell structure and function ...................................................................................................38
7.1 Biologists use microscopes and the tools of chemistry to study cells .........................................38
7.2 Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalize their functions......................38
7.3 The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried out by the
ribosomes...........................................................................................................................................40

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, 7.4 The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the
cell ......................................................................................................................................................41
7.5 Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from one form to another ...................................42
7.6 The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that organizes structures and activities in the cell ........44
7.7 Extracellular components and connections between cells help coordinate cellular activities.....45
Chapter 8: Cell membranes ...................................................................................................................47
8.1 Cellular membranes are fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins ......................................................47
8.2 Membrane structure results in selective permeability .................................................................48
8.3 Passive transport is diffusion of a substance across a membrane with no energy investment ..48
8.4 Active transport uses energy to move solutes against their gradients ........................................49
8.5 Bulk transport across the plasma membrane occurs by exocytosis and endocytosis ................50
Chapter 9: Cellular signaling ..................................................................................................................51
9.1 External signals are converted to responses within the cell ........................................................51
9.2 Reception: a signaling molecule binds to a receptor protein, causing it to change shape .........51
9.3 Transduction: cascades of molecular interactions relay signals from receptors to target
molecules in the cell ...........................................................................................................................53
9.4 Response: cell signaling leads to regulation of transcription or cytoplasmic activities ...............54
9.5 Apoptosis integrates multiple cell-signaling pathways ................................................................55
Chapter 10: Cell respiration ...................................................................................................................56
10.1 Catabolic pathways yield energy by oxidizing organic flues .....................................................56
10.2 Glycolysis harvest chemical energy by oxidizing glycose to pyruvate ......................................57
10.3 After pyruvate is oxidized, the citric acid cycle completes the energy-yielding oxidation of
organic molecules ..............................................................................................................................58
10.4 During oxidative phosphorylation, chemiosmosis couples electron transport to ATP synthesis
...........................................................................................................................................................59
10.5 Fermentation and anaerobic respiration enable cells to produce ATP without the use of
oxygen ................................................................................................................................................61
10.6 Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle connect to many other metabolic pathways ......................62
Chapter 11: Photosynthetic processes ..................................................................................................63
11.1 Photosynthesis converts light energy to the chemical energy of food ......................................63
11.3 The Calvin cycle uses the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 to sugar .......66
11.4 Alternative mechanisms of carbon fixation have evolved in hot, arid climates .........................67
Chapter 12: Mitosis ................................................................................................................................69
12.1 Most cell division results in genetically identical daughter cells ................................................69
12.2 The mitotic phase alternates with interphase in the cell cycle ..................................................69
12.3 The eukaryotic cell cycle is regulated by a molecular control system .......................................71
Chapter 13: Sexual life cycles and meiosis ...........................................................................................73
13.1 Offspring acquire genes from parents by inheriting chromosomes ...........................................73
13.2 Fertilization and meiosis alternate in sexual life cycles .............................................................73
13.3 Meiosis reduces the number of chromosome sets from diploid to haploid ...............................74
13.4 Genetic variation produced in sexual life cycles contributes to evolution .................................75

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,Chapter 14: Mendelian genetics ............................................................................................................76
14.1 Mendel used the scientific approach to identify two laws of inheritance ...................................76
14.2 Probability laws govern Mendelian inheritance .........................................................................77
14.3 Inheritance patterns are often more complex than predicted by simple Mendelian genetics ...77
14.4 Many human traits follow Mendelian patterns of inheritance ....................................................79
Chapter 15: Linkage and chromosomes ................................................................................................81
15.1 Morgan showed that Mendelian inheritance has its physical basis in the behavior of
chromosomes: Scientific inquiry ........................................................................................................81
15.2 Sex linked genes exhibit unique patterns of inheritance ...........................................................81
15.3 Linked genes tent to be inherited together because they are located near each other on the
same chromosome ............................................................................................................................82
15.4 Alterations of chromosome number or structure cause some genetic disorders ......................83
15.5 Some inheritance patterns are exceptions to standard Mendelian inheritance ........................84
Chapter 16: Nucleic acids and inheritance ............................................................................................85
16.1 DNA is the genetic material .......................................................................................................85
16.2 Many proteins work together in DNA replication and repair ......................................................86
16.3 A chromosome consists of a DNA molecule packed together with proteins .............................88
Chapter 17: Expression of genes ..........................................................................................................89
17.1 Genes specify proteins via transcription and translation ...........................................................89
17.2 Transcription is the DNA-directed synthesis of RNA: a closer look ..........................................90
17.3 Eukaryotic cells modify RNA after transcription ........................................................................91
17.4 Translation is the RNA-directed synthesis of a polypeptide: A closer look ...............................92
17.5 Mutations of one or a few nucleotides can affect protein structure and function ......................94
Chapter 18: Control of gene expression ................................................................................................96
18.1 Bacteria often respond to environmental change by regulation transcription ...........................96
18.2 Eukaryotic gene expression is regulated at many stages .........................................................97
18.3 Noncoding RNAs play multiple roles in controlling gene expression ........................................99
18.4 A program of differential gene expression leads to the different cell types in a multicellular
organism ..........................................................................................................................................100
18.5 Cancer results from genetic changes that affect cell cycle control .........................................101
Chapter 19: DNA technology ...............................................................................................................103
19.1 DNA sequencing and DNA cloning are valuable tools for genetic engineering and biological
inquiry...............................................................................................................................................103
19.2 Biologists use DNA technology to study gene expression and function .................................105
19.3 Cloned organisms and stem cells are useful for basic research and other applications ........106
19.4 The practical applications of DNA-based biotechnology affect our lives in many ways .........107
Chapter 20: The evolution of genomes ...............................................................................................109
20.1 The Human Genome Project fostered development of faster, less expensive sequencing
techniques ........................................................................................................................................109
20.2 Scientists use bioinformatics to analyze genomes and their functions ...................................109
20.3 Genomes vary in size, number of genes, and gene density ...................................................110

3

, 20.4 Multicellular eukaryotes have much noncoding DNA and many multigene families ...............110
20.5 Duplication, rearrangement, and mutation of DNA contribute to genome evolution ...............111
20.6 Comparing genome sequences provides clues to evolution and development ......................112
Chapter 21: How evolution works ........................................................................................................114
21.1 The Darwinian revolution challenged traditional views of a young Earth inhabited by
unchanging species .........................................................................................................................114
21.2 Descent with modification by natural selection explains the adaptations of organisms and the
unity and diversity of life...................................................................................................................115
21.3 Evolution is supported by an overwhelming amount of scientific evidence ............................116
Chapter 22: Phylogenetic reconstruction .............................................................................................118
22.1 Phylogenies show evolutionary relationships ..........................................................................118
22.2 Phylogenies are inferred from morphological and molecular data ..........................................119
22.3 Shared characters are used to construct phylogenetic trees ..................................................120
22.4 An organism’s evolutionary history is documented in its genome ...........................................121
22.5 Molecular clocks help track evolutionary time .........................................................................122
22.6 Our understanding of the tree of life continues to change based on new data .......................122
Chapter 23: Microevolution ..................................................................................................................123
23.1 Genetic variation makes evolution possible ............................................................................123
23.2 The Hardy-Weinberg equation can be used to test whether a population is evolving ............124
23.3 Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow can alter allele frequencies in a population ....125
23.4 Natural selection is the only mechanism that consistently causes adaptive evolution ...........126
Chapter 24: Species and speciation ....................................................................................................128
24.1 The biological species concept emphasizes reproductive isolation ........................................128
24.2 Speciation can take place with or without geographic separation ...........................................129
24.3 hybrid zones reveal factors that cause reproductive isolation .................................................130
24.4 Speciation can occur rapidly or slowly and can result from changes in few or many genes ..130
Chapter 25: Macroevolution .................................................................................................................131
25.1 Conditions on early Earth made the origin of life possible ......................................................131
25.2 The fossil record documents the history of life ........................................................................132
25.3 Key events in life’s history include the origins of unicellular and multicellular organisms and the
colonization of land ..........................................................................................................................133
25.4 The rise and fall of groups of organisms reflect differences in speciation and extinction rates
.........................................................................................................................................................134
25.5 Major changes in body form can result from changes in the sequences and regulation of
developmental genes .......................................................................................................................136
25.6 Evolution is not goal oriented ...................................................................................................137
Chapter 26: Introduction to viruses ......................................................................................................138
26.1 A virus consists of a nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat ..............................................138
26.2 Viruses replicate only in host cells ...........................................................................................138
26.3 Viruses, viroids, and prions are formidable pathogens in animals and plants ........................141
Chapter 27: Prokaryotes ......................................................................................................................143

4

, 27.1 Structural and functional adaptations contribute to prokaryotic success ................................143
27.2 Rapid reproduction, mutation, and genetic recombination promote genetic diversity in
prokaryotes ......................................................................................................................................144
27.3 Diverse nutritional and metabolic adaptations have evolved in prokaryotes ..........................145
27.4 Prokaryotes have radiated into a diverse set of lineages ........................................................146
27.5 Prokaryotes play crucial roles in the biosphere .......................................................................147
27.6 Prokaryotes have both beneficial and harmful impacts on humans ........................................147
Chapter 28: The Origin and Evolution of Eukaryotes ..........................................................................149
28.1 Most eukaryotes are single-celled organisms .........................................................................149
28.2 Excavates include protists with modified mitochondria and protists with unique flagella .......150
28.3 The “SAR” clade is a highly diverse group of protists defined by DNA similarities .................150
28.4 Red algae and green algae are the closest relatives of land plants........................................151
28.5 Unikonts include protists that are closely related to fungi and animals ...................................151
28.6 Protists play key roles in ecological communities ...................................................................152
Chapter 29: Nonvascular and seedless vascular plants .....................................................................153
29.1 Land plants evolved from green algae ....................................................................................153
29.2 Mosses and other nonvascular plants have life cycles dominated by gametophytes .............155
29.3 Ferns and other seedless vascular plants were the first plants to grow tall ............................158
Chapter 30: Seed plants ......................................................................................................................162
30.1 Seeds and pollen grains are key adaptions for life on land .....................................................162
30.2 Gymnosperms bear “naked” seeds, typically on cones ...........................................................164
30.3 The reproductive adaptations of angiosperms include flowers and fruits ...............................166
30.4 Human welfare depends on seed plants .................................................................................169
Chapter 31: Introduction to Fungi ........................................................................................................170
31.1 Fungi are heterotrophs that feed by absorption ......................................................................170
31.2 Fungi produce spores through sexual or asexual life cycles ...................................................171
31.3 The ancestor of fungi was an aquatic, single-celled, flagellated protist ..................................171
31.4 Fungi have radiated into a diverse set of lineages ..................................................................172
31.5 Fungi play key roles in nutrient cycling, ecological interactions, and human welfare .............173
Chapter 32: An Introduction to Animal Diversity ..................................................................................175
32.1 Animals are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes with tissues that develop from embryonic
layers ................................................................................................................................................175
32.2 The history of animals spans more than half a billion years ...................................................176
32.3 Animals can be characterized by “body plans” ........................................................................177
32.4 Views of animal phylogeny continue to be shaped by new molecular and morphological data
.........................................................................................................................................................179
Chapter 33: Invertebrates ....................................................................................................................180
33.1 Sponges are basal animals that lack true tissues ...................................................................181
33.2 Cnidarians are an ancient phylum of eumetazoans ................................................................181
33.3 Lophotrochozoans, a clade identified by molecular data, have the widest range of animal body
forms ................................................................................................................................................182

5

, 33.4 Ecdysozoans are the most species-rich animal group ............................................................185
33.5 Echinoderms and chordates are deuterostomes .....................................................................187
Chapter 34: Vertebrates.......................................................................................................................189
34.1 Chordates have a notochord and a dorsal, hollow nerve cord ................................................189
34.2 Vertebrates are chordates that have a backbone ...................................................................190
34.3 Gnathostomes are vertebrates that have jaws ........................................................................191
34.4 Tetrapods are gnathostomes that have limbs .........................................................................192
34.5 Amniotes are tetrapods that have a terrestrially adapted egg .................................................193
34.6 Mammals are amniotes that have hair and produce milk ........................................................195
34.7 Humans are mammals that have a large brain and bipedal locomotion .................................197
Chapter 35: Plant structure and growth ...............................................................................................200
35.1 Plants have a hierarchical organization consisting of organs, tissues, and cells ....................200
35.2 Different meristems generate new cells for primary and secondary growth ...........................202
35.3 Primary growth lengthens roots and shoots ............................................................................202
35.4 Secondary growth increases the diameter of stems and roots in woody plants .....................203
35.5 Growth, morphogenesis, and cell differentiation produce the plant body ...............................204
Chapter 36: Transport in vascular plants .............................................................................................206
36.1 Adaptations for acquiring resources were key steps in the evolution of vascular plants ........206
36.2 Different mechanisms transport substances over short or long distances ..............................207
36.3 Transpiration drives the transport of water and minerals from roots to shoots via the xylem .208
36.4 the rate of transpiration is regulated by stomata .....................................................................210
36.5 Sugars are transported from sources to sinks via the phloem ................................................211
36.6 The symplast is highly dynamic ...............................................................................................212
Chapter 37: Plant nutrition ...................................................................................................................213
37.1 Soil contains a living, complex ecosystem ..............................................................................213
37.2 Plant require essential elements to complete their life cycle ...................................................215
37.3 Plant nutrition often involves relationships with other organisms ............................................217
Chapter 38: Reproduction of flowering plants .....................................................................................219
38.1 Flowers, double fertilization, and fruits are key features of the angiosperm life cycle ............219
38.2 Flowering plant reproduce sexually, asexually, or both...........................................................223
38.3 People modify crops by breeding and genetic engineering.....................................................224
Chapter 39: Plant signals and behavior ...............................................................................................226
39.1 Signal transduction pathways link signal reception to response .............................................226
39.2 Plant hormones help coordinate growth, development, and responses to stimuli ..................227
39.3 Responses to light are critical for plant success .....................................................................230
39.4 Plants responds to a wide variety of stimuli other than light ...................................................231
39.5 Plants respond to attacks by pathogens and herbivores.........................................................233
Chapter 40: The animal body ..............................................................................................................235
40.1 Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization ......................................235
40.2 Feedback and control maintains the international environment in many animals ..................237

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