Chapter 3 Individual Differences and Assessment
3.1 Individual Differences and Assessment
Varieties of Individual Differences
James McKeen Cattell developed the concept of a mental test. Since the subject matter of Individual differences in the workplace
this research was differences, the study of differences became known as differential tells us about both personality and ability
psychology. The actual measurement of abilities became known as psychometrics.
Shift from merely exploring cognitive ability with the g-ocentric model (based on Sternberg’s “g”), work psychologists now consider individual
differences in physical abilities, personality, interests, knowledge and emotion. Well accepted idea that people have many different attributes that
predict behaviour in organisations.
3.2 Human Attributes
Abilities
Edwin Fleishman, 1950s, developed a taxonomy of 52 abilities which can be divided into broad categories of cognitive, physical, and perceptual-
motor abilities.
• Cognitive Abilities
Capabilities related to the acquisition and • Physical Abilities
application of knowledge in problem solving Capabilities related to the performance of
Examples: Verbal, Quantitative, Reasoning, Spatial, physical work
Perceptual Examples: Strength; Stamina; Flexibility and
Coordination; Psychomotor; Sensory
• Emotional Intelligence
Capabilities related to the management and the
use of emotions when interacting with others
The Big Five and other models of personality
How important is personality?
• C and ES are positively associated with job
performance in all jobs
• O, C, and A predicted discretionary pro-social and
pro-organisational behaviours across jobs
3.3 Foundations of Assessment
Individual Differences Model Note:
Research suggests that approx. 50% of the
Fundamental assumptions that I-O variation we observe in people’s personalities
Psychologists make when applying the individual can be attributed to genetic factors (“nature”)
differences model:
• Adults have a variety of attributes and the levels
of these are relatively stable over a reasonable
time period (years). Personality can be considered a moderator
• People differ with respect to these attributes and — individuals may respond differently to the
these differences are associated to job success same stressor in the workplace, particularly
• The relative differences between people on these in weak situations.
attributes remain even after training, job For example: An individual who experiences
experience, or some other intervention. organisational change (stressor) at work may
• Different jobs require different attributes develop insomnia (response) because they
• These attributes can be measured have a strong need for control (individual
difference)
, Note on assessment centre techniques
Valid employee selection techniques: • In-basket technique — involves placing a range of
• Biographical inventory concerns or issues in an “in-basket” to familiarise
• Structured Interviews employees with their jobs
• Assessment centre and Work Sample Tests • Leaderless group discussion
• Psychological tests • Fact finding
• Oral presentation
Psychological Testing
Do people differ in thinking styles?
Intuitive (Type 1)
Principles vs
• Standardisation Analytic (Type 2) Speed vs. power tests
• Objectivity thinking styles Speed tests have rigid & demanding time
• Norming limits
• Reliability and Validity • Focus: Is the person both fast and accurate
• Benefit: Lots of variation across different
test-takers
• Requirement: Questions must be relevant to
Types of Psychological Tests job
• Risk: May increase the risk of legal
Tests of cognitive ability challenges
Intelligence as “g”: involve ability to reason, plan, solve problems, comprehend complex ideas
and learn from experience Power tests have no rigid time limits
The higher the job complexity, the higher the predictive value of general intelligence tests
Tests of interests
Rationale is that if a person exhibits the same pattern of interests & preferences as people who are
successful in a given occupation, then the chances are high that the person taking the test will find Note:
satisfaction in that occupation In discussing tests and testing, it is important to
consider three factors:
Motor skills tests • bias — or errors of prediction
These tests measure abilities involving muscular strength, cardiovascular endurance, and • fairness — a value judgment about decisions
movement quality based on test scores
• culture — the extent to which a test taker has
Personality tests the opportunity to become familiar with the
High scores on particular personality traits are correlated with job success in a particular subject matter
occupation
• Screen-in tests for identifying normal personality
• Screen-out tests for identifying psychopathology in important job positions (and can only be
administered after offer of employment)
Tests of knowledge and skills
Tests of Emotional Intelligence
Integrity tests
They predict theft and counterproductive behaviours such as absenteeism, drug abuse, theft, and
malingering
3.4 Special Topics in Assessment
Incremental validity — it is important to study what combinations of assessment tools to use for the greatest predictive validity at the lowest cost.
I-O psychologists have examined the predictive validity of particular combinations to demonstrate the added value of combining two or more
assessment devices.
Computer-based Assessment
Virtually every commercial test available in paper form is also available on the computer. The variety of tests that can be presented on a computer
platform is almost without limits. At this point, however, the elegance and excitement of the computer-based medium are tempered by its costs: Well-
developed and engaging computer (and particularly video) assessment exercises are extremely expensive.
, Why should we care about job
performance/
• Organisational level
Chapter 4 Job Analysis and Performance Performance is what an organisation hires an
employee to do
• Individual level
4.1 Models of job performance: multidimensional Selection/termination, promotion/
Task performance Organisational Citizenship behaviour Counterproductive Work Behaviour
In- role performance Extra-role/contextual performance Deviant behaviour
How well (or poorly) employees perform Work behaviour that goes beyond what Voluntary behaviour that violates significant
their job duties compared to expectations for is expected of a job yet contributed to team organisational norms and threatens the well-
the job. effectiveness etc. being of the organisation, its members, or both
Can be assessed by questionnaires which
Measuring in-role performance themselves assess two separate aspects of Dishonesty: Employee theft of goods and theft
• Over periods of time OCB. of time (arriving late, leaving early, taking
Objective measure (output) unnecessary sick days) or dishonest
Judgemental measure (supervisor ratings) • Altruism communications with customers, co-workers,
Electronic performance monitoring • Compliance or management.
• Civic virtue
• Immediately • Boosterism Absenteeism : Type of counterproductive
Hands-on (“show me”) • Courtesy behaviour that involves failure of an employee
Walk-through testing (“tell me”) • Sportsmanship to report for or remain at work as scheduled.
Problems with performance measurement Determinants Sabotage : Acts that damage, disrupt, or sub-
Control: does the employee have complete Attitudinal factors: job satisfaction, eager vert the organisation’s operations for personal
control over their performance? supportiveness, perceived fairness, purposes of the saboteur by creating
Content: does the criterion measure the right commitment unfavourable publicity, damage to property,
things (is it valid?)? Dispositional factors: conscientiousness, destruction of working relationships, or
agreeableness harming of employees or customers.
Note: Criterion contamination and deficiency
Achievement Goal Approach:
Understanding competence-relevant
• Limited control: A contaminated criterion measures something that
achievement situations
is unrelated to the behaviour one is trying to measure
Example: intelligence test that also measures
Avoidance directed away form the
general knowledge
negative possibility of incompetence
• Limited content: A deficient criterion fails to measure something
that it should have measured (missing information)
Approach directed toward the
positive possibility of competence
In an ideal world, we would be able to measure all relevant aspects of
job performance perfectly. A collective measure of all of these aspects
Mastery focused on task-based
would be called the ultimate criterion (theoretical criterion), but
interpersonal competence
since we can never reliably measure all aspects of performance, we
settle for an actual criterion
Performance focused on normative
or interpersonal competence
Typology of CWB: a model
Note on Typical vs Maximum Performance
The question is whether the predictors of
typical performance are also the predictors of
maximum performance. And for how long a
worker can demonstrate maximum
performance.
Beus and Whitman (2012) conducted a meta-
analysis and found a moderate association
between typical and maximum performance (r
= +.42), indicating that a meaningful
distinction does indeed exist!
Factors that influence maximum performance
— confidence level, establishment of goals,
complexity of performance, cognitive ability
and formal knowledge (typical performance is
rather influenced by personality)
