The expectancy theory is the idea that people’s actions are driven by expected consequences. It can be used to
predict behaviour in any situation in which a choice between two or more alternatives must be made. (FE:
hedonistic people strive to maximise their pleasure and minimise their pain)
Vroom’s expectancy theory
Motivation is about how much effort to exert in a specific task situation and this is based on a three-
stage sequence of expectations:
1. Motivation is affected by an individual’s expectation that a certain level of effort will produce
the intended performance goal.
2. Motivation is also influenced by a person’s perceived chances of getting various outcomes as
a result of performing at a level which would result in the benefits.
3. If the perceived value of the outcome is higher than the perceived value of the cost/effort
then the effort will be exerted.
Expectancy represents an individual’s belief that a particular degree of effort will be followed by a
particular level of performance. Effort performance expectation. Zero represents the perception
that effort has no effort on performance and one represents the perception that everything depends
on effort. Factors that influence an employee’s expectancy perceptions are:
Self-esteem
Self-efficacy
Previous success at the task
Help received from a supervisor and subordinates
Information necessary to complete the task
Good materials and equipment to work with
An instrumentality is a performance outcome perception. It represents a person’s belief that a
particular outcome depends on performing at a specific level. Performance is instrumental when it
leads to something else.
Valence refers to the positive or negative value people place on outcomes. Valence mirrors our
personal preferences. Outcome personal goals relationship. The sum of the valences of all relevant
outcomes has to be positive. This means that some valences may be negative, although the positive
valences must outweigh the negative ones.
Theory is difficult to test, and the measures used to assess expectancy, instrumentality and valence
have questionable validity. But the theory has important practical implications for managers and
organisations as a whole.
Equity theory of motivation
Equity theory is a model of motivation that explains how people strive for fairness and justice in social
exchanges or give-and-take relationships. It is based on cognitive dissonance theory: people are
motivated to maintain consistency between their cognitive beliefs and their behaviour. Perceived
inconsistencies create cognitive dissonance (psychological discomfort) which motivates corrective
action. Three elements are important when applying this theory:
1. Awareness of the key components of the individual-organisation exchange relationship:
inputs and outcomes.
2. This relationship is pivotal in the formation of employees’ perceptions of equity and inequity.
Employees decide what their equitable return should be by comparing their inputs and
outcomes with that of comparison others.
3. It focuses on what people are motivated to do when they feel treated inequitably they try to
reduce this inequity.
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