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Introductory Psychology and Brain & Cognition Summary Interim 2
I made this summary when I was in my first year of the bachelor Psychology at UvA.
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Complete Summary IntroductoryPsychology and Brain &
Cognition
Psychology Chapter 10...........................................................................................................................2
Solving Problems: Reasoning and Intelligence...................................................................................2
Psychology Chapter 11.........................................................................................................................15
The Development of Body, Thought, and Language.........................................................................15
Psychology Chapter 12.........................................................................................................................33
Social Development.........................................................................................................................33
Psychology Chapter 13.........................................................................................................................47
Social Psychology.............................................................................................................................47
Psychology Chapter 14.........................................................................................................................63
Personality.......................................................................................................................................63
Psychology Chapter 15.........................................................................................................................77
Psychological Disorders....................................................................................................................77
Psychology Chapter 16.........................................................................................................................91
Treatment of Psychological Disorders..............................................................................................91
,Psychology Chapter 10
Solving Problems: Reasoning and Intelligence
Learning outcomes:
Explain how people use analogies and inductive reasoning to solve problems.
Describe of deductive reasoning and insight are used in problem solving.
Provide examples of how cross-cultural differences affect perception and reasoning.
Recount how intelligence tests were first developed, how their validity is assessed, and what
evidence supports the existence of general intelligence.
Identify various genetic and environmental factors in terms of their contributions to
intelligence.
Key Terms
Analogy Availability bias Confirmation bias
Crystallized intelligence Deductive reasoning Fluid intelligence
Flynn effect Functional fixedness General intelligence (g)
Inductive reasoning Insight problems Intelligence
IQ Mental set Nature-nurture debate
Predictable-world bias Stereotype threat heritability
Reasoning: the process in which we use our memories in adaptive ways.
Intelligence: our general capacity to reason.
William James pointed out that the more someone can see similarities between things when other
cants, the better this person can reason.
You have two kinds of reasoning which depend on identifying similarities;
Analogical reasoning
Inductive reasoning
Focus: How would you construct a test to assess a person’s ability to perceive
analogies?
Tests like the A:B::C:?. Or Raven’s progressive Matrices test.
Focus: What is some evidence concerning the usefulness of analogies in scientific
reasoning?
When something new is discovered in science, they often use analogies to make it easier for
themselves to understand.
Like selective breeding and natural selection.
, Focus: How are analogies useful in judicial and political reasoning? What
distinguishes a useful analogy from a misleading one?
In political and judicial reasoning analogies are useful because they can make unfamiliar or big
problems appear more approachable and relatable.
A useful analogy has a similar relationship to what it is used for. While a misleading analogy uses a
relationship that is very different from the one it’s used for.
Focus: What is inductive reasoning, and why is it also called hypothesis
construction? Why is reasoning by analogy inductive?
Inductive reasoning is reasoning where we apply a certain principle we learned in other situations to
a new one. It’s like proposing a hypothesis to the situation, so it’s like hypothesis construction.
Analogies are also a form of inductive reasoning because we try to explain a certain situation by tying
it to another situation we understand better. And from this situation we generate a hypothesis.
Focus: What kinds of false inferences are likely the result from the availability
bias?
Things we can conjure to the consciousness more readily are thought to be more prevalent than they
actually are.
Focus: What are two different ways by which researchers have demonstrated the
confirmation bias?
When people needed to find a rule for sequencing number they were likely to stick to the first rule
they found, and looked for ways to confirm this rule.
When people are asked to find out if someone is an introvert (or an extravert) they are likely to ask
question which the answer would be yes to if they were. Meaning they were trying to find a way to
confirm they are an introvert (or extravert).
, Focus: How does a die-tossing game demonstrate the predictable-world bias?
When throwing a dice with 4 red sides and 2 green sides, the safest bet is guessing it’ll land on red.
Since that probability it 4/6 = 2/3. But people tend to vary their guesses, in ways that they have 4
guesses for red and 2 guesses for green, instead of just 6 guesses for red. They will win less times
with this strategy. But people have the tendency to reason inductively even when the relationship in
question is completely random.
Section Review
We Reason Largely by Perceiving Similarities Between New Events and Familiar Ones.
Analogies as a Basis for Reasoning Inductive Reasoning
Analogies are similarities in behavior, functions, or In inductive reasoning, or hypothesis construction, a
relationships in otherwise different entities or new principle or proposition is inferred on the basis
situations. of specific observations or facts. We are generally
Both scientists and nonscientists often use analogies good at inductive reasoning, but are susceptible to
to make sense of observations and generate new certain biases.
hypotheses. True scientific reasoning is a form of inductive
Analogies are commonly used in legal and political reasoning.
persuasion. The availability bias is our tendency to give too much
Analogical thinking involves multiple parts of the weight to information that comes more easily to
prefrontal cortex, with extensive practice using mind than to other relevant information.
analogies altering brain structure. The confirmation bias leads us to try to confirm
rather than disconfirm out current hypothesis.
Logically, a hypothesis cannot be proven, only
disproven.
The predictable-world bias leads us to arrive at
predictions through induction even when events are
actually random.
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