Lecture 1
Trust in numbers
In the beginning: people did not trust machines, because they knew they were being tricked.
Machines first were not intended to be used but intended to show to people what a mechanical
view would entail. Steam machine people were trusting machines, because they were used with a
purpose. People who put faith in fixing machines to make business more efficient. Such a person is
Babbage. Babbage was a mathematician, interested into the economy of business (how to make
business more efficient, especially with machines). One of the solutions (not with machines) is one of
the clerking houses. First: meet with all banks at a place and swap checks and create a balance
sheet. Babbage’s solution: having every bank opening an account at the bank of England. Preventing
the counting trick.
Whole efficiency movement increased trust in numbers and trust in machines. Started with census
that were used in US. Allowed government to know how many taxes to collect, who for the army
etc. trust in numbers trust in statistics. 1890 census was the first census which was done by
machines (still calculated by human to check). Trust in machines and trust in numbers is a causal
relationship.
Three traditions
The several histories are the three traditions of administration, process control and science. In early
20th century, the idea that machines could make life easier was in the head of industrialists and
governments. Would increasingly become a stronger wish. In the US most focus was on
administration. In Europe mostly process control and science, later administration.
Administration: firstly, copies of existing work were copied by hand. Typewriter supplanted copying
of letters. Up to 10 copies in once. Punched card machines introduced. Used for sorting, tabulating
etc. calculators, typewriters, sorting machines, counting machines, and tabulating machines
introduced. Printmachine before these machines and was a machine of the efficiency movement. As
a result business jumped in (used and produced). Not necessarily efficient improvements were based
on technology, however they all started with a business outline.
Process control: large companies producing something (oil / steel). Typically keep an eye on the
process from a large distance as a result of the production circumstances. Efficiency involved, but
different kind of. Outlines to analogue the process (checks with feedback loops). Different kind of
automation, machine took appropriate action itself. Business was always intervention and process
control not anymore. Here again, outlines of the processes (different sort).
Science and engineering: computers (PEOPLE) active in: weather (storm) prediction,
(hydro)mechanical calculations, aeronautics, econometry, telephone cables and military
applications. Differential analyser (Bush) and numerical analysis (Hartree). Most calculations done on
worksheets (outlines).
Different traditions had their own ideals what a machine would do and reach automation.
Administration: money, (felt) urgency, outlines and practices. Process control: outlines, technology
analogue, practices. Science: concepts, calculations and outlines. All three of them had outlines in
common and used these to define the process (efficiency process/analogue intervention
processes/calculational processes). Administration most money rose first ideal computer.
,Lecture 2
Lecture 2
Cold war Science
The book shows that UK was not devastated as only and could establish serious computer program.
This is kind of true, especially in the word of serious. If it means had consequences reaching up until
80s, quite exceptions. Germany had computer scientist who were building machines, but not
computer scientists yet. When American troops were looking for computer scientists (build rocket
program and atomic age) came across people who they thought were valuable. Tokyo: built the
Yamashita type statistical machine (1944-1948). Commonly used was punch cards and this one was
digital. Not that US and UK could only built machines. US & UK not really interested in statistical
projects, because they had the IBM machines. They wanted to have these machines for: Manhattan
Project, Aeronautical calculations, Code Breaking (Bletchly Park), Radar and Supplying troups
(calculations). IBM machines could perform a good job, but not suitable, needed to speed up. After
WW II there was a need for scientific calculations exploded. With NASA (long time human were still
computer) and rise of Atomic power, machines became the things to rely on. This happened in
Europe as well. Determination and Marshall plan speeded up rebuilding the country and building a
computer was not really expensive. People who were building were. Within Europe there was a mix
of fatalism (everything was devastated) and optimism (there was hope, people working to achieve a
better society).
Early examples of trust in what science could offer and need for scientist: 1946 establishment of the
mathematische centrum (1946) – Moore school. Many people from mathematical centre to Moore
school. Wanted own computer for their own purposes.
Hans Freudentahl: “Rekenmachines winnen den oorlog (1946)” reflecting idea mathematicians with
their calculations had contributed to the war. Idea that society could improve with mathematics.
Cold war’s Europe was not following the same path as USA. Jean Jacques Servan -Schreiber named
Le défis Américain (1968). How to compete with America. Strong need was felt to have own
technology etc. Their own computers was part of this as well. Within countries academics were
trying to build own machine (not dependent on US culture). War trodden Europe was quite ready to
move into the computer age, as was Japan. The devastation could even be profitable. Relays and
radio tubes were relatively cheap (was nodig om machine te maken, overblijfselen van de oorlog).
Cambridge, May 6, 1949: Maurice Wilkes and the EDSAC. Were the Japanese trusted into
electronical storage of knowledge, machines in UK and Moore school were used for calculations.
Programs were stored in the machine. Between calculations delay was needed mercury delay-
line. Was component of radar-technology. Ray –delay—Ray (separate moving objects).
Dutch Dinosaurs
Dutch dinosaurs reflects that these machines did not were intended to function/become as a
present-day computers, but they were there to function as solution to problems that were there at
that moment. Dutch wanted to compute, especially scientists. 2 obvious reasons to do large scale
computations. 1. Aeronautics and the other was the large reclamation and waterworks projects.
H. A. Lorentz and C. Lely were involved in closure of the Zuiderzee.
Johan van Veen (1893-1953). He worked for Rijkswaterstaat. Van Veen has built analogmachines. He
called his analog “analogons”. Each machine had a specific purpose ofsolving problems in water
, management. An example is a machine which calculated the tidesof a specific water surface. He
used this machines as computers. The tradition of usinganalogons existed until the 1970s. The
Deltar, another example, did the computations for theZeeland dijk in the 1950s till early 1970s.
These analogons were not “really” programmable.One could adjust parameters, but not more.Johan
van Veen (1893-1953). He worked for Rijkswaterstaat. Van Veen has built analogmachines. He called
his analog “analogons”. Each machine had a specific purpose ofsolving problems in water
management. An example is a machine which calculated the tidesof a specific water surface. He
used this machines as computers. The tradition of usinganalogons existed until the 1970s. The
Deltar, another example, did the computations for theZeeland dijk in the 1950s till early 1970s.
These analogons were not “really” programmable.One could adjust parameters, but not more.
Willem van der Poel (*1926). He is a Dutch physicist and computer scientist. He worked inDelft. Van
der Poel is the designer of the ARCO (Testudo), PTERA, ZERO and ZEBRAcomputers. HisWillem van
der Poel (*1926). He is a Dutch physicist and computer scientist. He worked inDelft. Van der Poel is
the designer of the ARCO (Testudo), PTERA, ZERO and ZEBRAcomputers. His
- ARCO (Automatic Relais Calculator for Optical problems), 1950. This machine was soslow, so
it was called to the Portuguese word for turtle: Testudo. The calculations made bythe
Tetsudo were done in the night. When the user left the office, he entered the
instructionsand when he came back the day after, the calculation was done and the answer
was given.
- ZERO (Zeer Eenvoudig Reken Orgaan), 1952 and PTERA (PTT Elektronische RekenAutomaat),
1953 were produced for the telephone traffic (PTT). The ZERO was a verysimple calculator.
The PTERA was a more advanced calculator and is considered as the firstsomewhat
commercial product.
- The ZEBRA (Zeer Eenvoudig Binair Reken Apparaat) was designed in 1955 by Van derPoel.
The ZEBRA is a very simple binary calculator. This calculator was produced in 1975 bythe
Standard Telephone and Cable Company (STANTECH). Van der Poel went to Philipsfirst, but
they could not produce it as a result of a conflict of interest.
Automatische relais rekenmachine Amsterdam (ARRA) 1952 and van Wijngaarden presented the
machine. Could calculate and showed audience that ARRA could produce a random number. Created
a machine which could “compete” with the machines in US. In the press it was considered a wonder!
However, something went wrong. Machine was too silent… van Wijngaarden gave a kick to the
machine and it spitted out a number. ARRA never functioned afterwards. In public wonder, in
mathematical center a disaster. In this way they were bluffing their way into the computer age.
ARRA 2, improved by not relying on relais and tubes but from transistors (1954). ARRA 2 ARMAC
1956, much used by the aeronautics industry. Electrologica X1 which was built on the ARRA 1. It was
a spin off of the Mathematical center. Number of jobs performed to let these machines run were
quite low, because programming these machines was quite difficult.
Willem van der Poel (*1926) interest in machine that could calculate different and difficult
constellations of optical lenses. Constructed machine (ARCO), later called Testudo, because it was so
slow. Relayed on relays, program hard-wired, but interchangeable. Calculations were correct. Was
part of Delft.
Delft had connections with the Dutch telephone traffic (PTT). For this company van der Poel
designed a ZERO, satisfies the desire of the PTT that a machine could supplant the operator in the
operating rooms for telephone connections establishment. Used this in a setting under the name of
PTERA. First somewhat commercial.
