College aantekeningen
Lectures test 1
Unit 1 tm 11 & 23, including all video's of Henk van der Kolk
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Unit 1Video’s
Empirical research: systematically answering empirical questions using observations (can
only be answered using observations)
- Systematically: excluding the possibility that other answers are better than the answer
we give
- Empirical: about things we can observe
- Observations: about things we can observe by using our senses, using things we can
observe.
Empirical questions come from:
- Science; follow up existing theories (fundamental science)
- Decision making; applied science, evaluation research
Procedure: the relation between question and answers. Several steps:
1. Theory/Thinking: think about possible answers, talk to others, read literature
2. Research design/Planning: decide how we can test what we think
3. Data collection/Observing
4. Data analysis/Analyzing; analyses is used to arrive at conclusions/answers
Deduction: the process of starting with theory and then thinking how we could test the
theory
Induction: the process of starting with data and then trying to arrive at conclusions.
Confirmation bias: search for, analyze and recall information in a way that confirms
preexisting beliefs, while giving disproportionately less consideration to alternative
interpretations. This affects what we think is “true”. Frequently made mistakes in politics,
business, social relationships, social science, psychology.
Extreme case of confirmation bias: conspiracy theories.
3 types of confirmation bias:
1. Bias in the acquisition of information: we only look for information than confirm our
preexisting beliefs
2. Bias in reasoning: we give disproportionate emphasis (=we wegen te zwaar) with
information that is in line with what we thought (and we ignore some things)
, 3. Bias in remembering conclusions: we remember only the conclusions that ar ein line
with our preexisting beliefs.
Normative questions are about what is allowed or what is good. These questions should
not be confused with conceptual questions or descriptive questions (see below). In most
cases normative questions implies philosophical (not empirical) research.
Conceptual questions are about the proper/useful/efficient meaning of words; ‘what is
freedom?’, ‘what is equality?’ ‘Which types of markets can be distinguished’.
Conceptualization is also a central part of research answering empirical questions, although
conceptual questions in empirical research are often discussed and answered without
explicitly stating a conceptual question.
Empirical questions are about ‘truth’ and ‘observations’. In science the goal of empirical
questions is ‘inference’; generalization. There are several types of empirical questions,
ranging from relatively simple to relatively complex.
• Descriptive questions (what is …). These questions are about describing facts, either
at one point in time or over time. Once the concept you want to use is not directly
observable (like ‘management style’ ‘political participation’) and/or the units of
analysis are sets (like ‘consumers’, ‘firms’ or ‘politicians’) description also involves
‘inference’.
• Relational questions. These studies involve examining the relationship between
different variables. They do not necessarily require that the relationship is causal.
• Explanatory questions (why is…). These questions are about explaining the causes
for something. This requires that the relationship between different variables is
studied. However, it is not enough to simply find correlations between variables;
answering explanatory questions also requires that the cause precedes the
consequence and that there is no third variable responsible for the correlation. In a
‘theory’ causes and consequences are connected by referring to a ‘causal
mechanism’.
Empirical questions come from science and decision making.
Applied questions are not aiming at finding or creating generalized knowledge, although
they may involve some (mainly descriptive) inference. Applied questions are asked simply
because people want to solve a specific social, political or commercial problem. Researchers
aiming to answering applied questions, apply existing knowledge to solve a real world
problem. Applied research is research using some part of the research communities'
knowledge (theories, methods, and techniques) for a specific purpose. Applied research is
often opposed to pure research (which is here called ‘empirical research’). Applied research
questions can only be answered if empirical research questions have been answered first.
We distinguish between different types of applied questions;
• Predictive questions (what will happen if …). Predictive questions are about things
that will happen in the (still unknown) future. Using answers to relational questions
, (‘correlations’) or (preferably) explanatory questions (‘theories’) it is possible to make
predictions that go beyond mythical thinking. If an existing correlation or proposition
shows that ‘always when X, Y will occur too’, the observation that X is the case will
help you to predict Y.
• Remedy questions (what is the solution to…). Remedy questions are about finding a
solution to a specified problem based on previous research. Generally the solution
proposed to such a question will be based around a causal relationship that has been
established by existing research; ‘if you use remedy X, under circumstances C, Y will
happen’. Your job is to summarize this research and show how it is relevant to the
problem at hand. In addition you have to argue that the circumstances (C ) are
relevant in your case. It will be necessary to include a much more detailed review of
existing research than is done for other types of questions.
• Design questions (how to…). These questions are about coming up with an effective
policy or an effective type of organization with a particular goal in mind. Design
questions are similar to remedy questions, although the solution you propose may not
necessarily be based on existing literature. Rather, you will be informed by the
literature and come up with something new.
Since applied questions differ from empirical questions, students planning to answer a design
question are referred to the webpage about applied science.
A special (sub-)category of questions are ‘unanswerable questions’. All types of questions
can be ‘unanswerable’ too (given the existing level of (your) knowledge). Although it is
difficult to say in general terms which questions are ‘unanswerable’, do not hesitate to admit
that they are.
Chapter 1, p. 3-13
Agreement reality: those things we “know” as part and parcel of the culture we share with
those around us.
Epistemology: the science of knowing; systems of knowledge.
Methodology (a subfield of epistemology): the science of finding out; procedures for
scientific investigation.
Most of what you know is a matter of agreement and belief. Little of it is based on personal
experience and discovery. A much larger part comes from the knowledge that others give us,
which both assists and hinders our attempts to find out for ourselves. 2 important sources of
our secondhand knowledge are: tradition and authority.
- Tradition. We simply accept the great majority of things that “everybody knows”, such
as eating too much candy wil decay our teeth. This offers some advantages, because
we can start with the knowledge base of previous generations. At the same time,
tradition has a negative effect on human inquiry (=onderzoek).
- Authority. Acceptance of new knowledge depends on the status of the discoverer;
you’re more likely to believe the epidemiologist than your uncle saying the same
thing. Authority can also both assist and hinder human inquiry. For example, inquiry is
hindered when we depend on experts speaking outside their realm of expertise (like
an athlete discussing the value of breakfast cereals).
Errors in inquiry: some common errors we make in inquiries.
- Inaccurate observations: mistakes in our observations.
- Overgeneralization: for example, if the first two people you interview give you the
same reason, you might assume that the other 3000 would agree. But, realize that we
, must generalize to some extent in order to survive; assume that all rattlesnakes are
poisonous. Solutions: seeking a sufficiently large sample of observations. Or
replication of inquiry.
- Selective observation: overgeneralization can lead to selective observation; once you
have developed that a pattern exists and why, you’ll tend to focus on future events
and situations that fit the pattern, and you’ll ignore those that don’t. Racial and ethnic
prejudices depend heavily on selective observation.
- Illogical reasoning: “the exception that proves the rule”; for example, when a gay
violates the stereotype someone holds for that group, it “proves” that the stereotype
remains valid for all the rest. Also, scientific understandings are constantly changing.
Replication of inquiry: repeating an experiment to see if the same results occur each time;
to expose or reduce error.
Two pillars of science: logic and observation. Both relate to 3 major aspects: theory, data
collection and data analysis. A scientific understanding must (1) make sense and (2)
correspond with what we observe.
Theory: a systematic explanation for the observations that relate to a particular aspect of life.
Theory: a coherent set of propositions about how a phenomenon can be explained or
predicted (fundamental science)
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