Dit is een samenvatting van een deel van het boek Psychological Science 9780393263138. Het bevat hoofdstuk 10, 11, 12, 14 en 15 (week 4 t/m 7). Het is van het vak Introduction to psychological theories van de minor psychology in society aan de RuG.
Chapter 10 - week 4
Emotion: an immediate, specific negative or positive response to environmental events or
internal thoughts. they typically interrupt whatever is happening or they trigger changes in
thought and behavior. emotions have 3 components:
• physiological process
• behavioral response
• feeling that is based on cognitive appraisal of the situation and interpretation of bodily
states.
Primary emotions: emotions that are innate, evolutionarily adaptive and universal (shared
across cultures). These emotions include anger, fear, sadness, disgust, happiness, surprise and
contempt.
Secondary emotions: blends of primary emotions.
Circumplex map of emotion: emotions can be categorized by valence (negative/positive) and by
level of arousal (low/high).
Arousal is a generic term to describe physiological activation or increased autonomic
responses.
3 major theories of emotion
• James-Lange theory: people perceive specific patterns of bodily responses and as a
result of that perception they feel emotion.
• Cannon-Bard theory: information about emotional stimuli is sent simultaneously to the
cortex and the body and results in emotional experience and bodily reactions
respectively. the mind is quick to experience, while the body is much slower (feel
embarrassment before blushing).
• Two-factor theory: a label applied to physiological arousal results in the
experience of an emotion. → Schachter-Singer two-factor theory: according to this
theory, a person experiences physiological changes and applies a cognitive label to
explain those changes.
Darwin proposed that the meaning of each facial expression varies from one culture to another.
somatic markers: bodily reactions that arise from the emotional evaluation of an action’s
consequences.
display rules: rules learned through socialization that dictate which emotions are suitable in
given situations. across cultures, display rules differ for females and males.
emotions that are interpersonal in nature, for example guilt and embarrassment, are particularly
important for the maintenance and repair of close interpersonal relationships.
Motivation
Motivation: a process that energizes, guides and maintains behavior toward a goal.
need: a state of biological or social deficiency.
need hierarchy: Maslow’s arrangement of needs in which basic survival needs must be
met before people can satisfy higher needs.
, drive: a psychological state that by creating arousal motivates an organism to satisfy needs.
Incentives
Incentives: external objects or external goals rather than internal drives that motivate behaviors.
Extrinsic motivation: motivation to perform an activity because of the external goals toward
which that activity is directed.
Intrinsic motivation: motivation to perform an activity because of the value or pleasure
associated with that activity, rather than for an apparent external goal or purpose.
Self-efficacy is the expectation that your efforts will lead to success. this expectation helps
mobilize your energies.
need to belong theory: people have a fundamental need for interpersonal attachments. need to
belong explains the ease with which people make friends, their sensitivity to social exclusion,
the adverse feelings experienced in the absence of social contact, and efforts to affiliate with
others when anxious.
A number of neural structures are associated with eating behavior including the frontal lobes,
hypothalamus, prefrontal cortex and limbic system.
eating is strongly affected by learning. through classical conditioning, people associate eating
with regular mealtimes.
Two theories have been proposed to explain eating behavior:
• glucostatic theory: eating is under the control of receptors in the bloodstream that
monitor levels of glucose - the body’s primary metabolic fuel.
• lipostatic theory: eating is regulated to maintain a body fat set-point.
Chapter 12 - week 5
Ingroups & outgroups
Reciprocity: if person A helps person B, then person B will help person A.
Transitivity: people generally share their friends’ opinions of other people.
Ingroups and outgroups can be formed based on minimal rules of social interaction. Once
people categorize others as ingroup or outgroup members, they treat the other accordingly.
Outgroup homogeneity effect: tendency to view outgroup members as less varied than ingroup
members.
social identity theory: idea that ingroups consist of individuals who perceive themselves to be
members of the same social category and experience pride through their group membership.
One consequence of categorizing people as ingroup or outgroup members is ingroup favoritism;
tendency for people to evaluate favorably and privilege members of the ingroup more than
members of the outgroup. The power of group membership is so strong that people exhibit
ingroup favoritism even if the groups are determined by arbitrary processes.
Research showed that women show a much greater automatic ingroup bias toward other
women than men do toward other men. It’s speculated that men and women depend on women
for nurturing and that both are threatened by male violence.
Groups influence individual behavior
social facilitation: idea that the presence of others generally enhances performance. It also
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