Oefenvragen Algemene Emotieleer
College 2: Describe the ‘facial feedback’ hypothesis. How could studies using Botox help test this
hypothesis, and what are the strengths and weaknesses of this approach?
According to the facial feedback hypothesis, our facial expressions can influence our feelings via
feedback from the face to the brain (e.g., Izard, 1971; Tomkins, 1962). The strong version of the
facial feedback hypothesis states that facial sensory feedback determines what emotion people
experience. The weak version states that the sensory feedback determines the intensity of the
emotions people experience. One way to study this hypothesis is to inhibit facial expressions, for
example using Botox (Davis et al, 2011). Botox allows for a test of causal claims of facial
feedback. According to the facial feedback hypothesis, individuals injected with Botox should
experience less intense emotional experiences than participants who receive a sham injection.
Advantages are the causal efficacy and specificity of the manipulation, and the fact that
participants need not be aware of the hypothesis. Some disadvantages are challenges with
keeping participants blind to the manipulation, and a dilemma between ethical concerns with
random allocation vs unrepresentative sample (people who want to have Botox may differ from
the general population). Social interactions may also be affected by the person having reduced
facial movement and looking younger, making it difficult to establish whether changes in
experience are due to facial or social feedback.
College 3: Outline the characteristics of embarrassment, including what differentiates it from
shame and guilt.
Embarrassment is based around a perceived negative self-presentation, and is less intense than
shame and guilt - this makes sense as it also tends to occur following more trivial transgressions
than the other two. Embarrassment is characterised by feeling foolish and being concerned
about the social evaluation of oneself (Buss, 1980), unlike shame where one feels a deeper sense
of worthlessness. Embarrassment is caused by breaking social conventions and can
consequently only occur in public situations, unlike guilt and shame that can occur when one is
alone (Edelmann, 1981). Finally, while shame and guilt lack nonverbal signals, embarrassment is
uniquely associated with blushing (Miller, 2004).
Explain the function(s) of embarrassment.
Embarrassment is associated with a sequence of non-verbal behaviours including averted gaze,
turned head, inhibited smile, face touching (Keltner, 1995; Keltner & Buswell, 1997). It is thought
that the expression of embarrassment triggers empathy, given that people who display
embarrassment after social transgressions are perceived more positively (Semin & Manstead,
1982). Embarrassment also serves an appeasement function, as it elicits forgiveness in the
perceiver towards the person expressing embarrassment, which can help to restore social
connections (Keltner & Anderson, 2000).
College 4: Describe at least three different motives for why we share our emotions with others
(social sharing).
We share our emotions with others for several reasons. One is that we seek social support. This
can involve emotional support, such as help with re-appraising an event, or practical hands-on
help. Social support also includes physical support like hugs. Talking about emotions can help in
the development of close relationships (Thoits, 1984). Another reason for social sharing is social
comparison. This means that we seek input from others on whether our own feelings in a given
situation are considered appropriate. This is preferably done with others who are similar to
ourselves (Festinger, 1954). A third reason that we engage in social sharing is for social
College 2: Describe the ‘facial feedback’ hypothesis. How could studies using Botox help test this
hypothesis, and what are the strengths and weaknesses of this approach?
According to the facial feedback hypothesis, our facial expressions can influence our feelings via
feedback from the face to the brain (e.g., Izard, 1971; Tomkins, 1962). The strong version of the
facial feedback hypothesis states that facial sensory feedback determines what emotion people
experience. The weak version states that the sensory feedback determines the intensity of the
emotions people experience. One way to study this hypothesis is to inhibit facial expressions, for
example using Botox (Davis et al, 2011). Botox allows for a test of causal claims of facial
feedback. According to the facial feedback hypothesis, individuals injected with Botox should
experience less intense emotional experiences than participants who receive a sham injection.
Advantages are the causal efficacy and specificity of the manipulation, and the fact that
participants need not be aware of the hypothesis. Some disadvantages are challenges with
keeping participants blind to the manipulation, and a dilemma between ethical concerns with
random allocation vs unrepresentative sample (people who want to have Botox may differ from
the general population). Social interactions may also be affected by the person having reduced
facial movement and looking younger, making it difficult to establish whether changes in
experience are due to facial or social feedback.
College 3: Outline the characteristics of embarrassment, including what differentiates it from
shame and guilt.
Embarrassment is based around a perceived negative self-presentation, and is less intense than
shame and guilt - this makes sense as it also tends to occur following more trivial transgressions
than the other two. Embarrassment is characterised by feeling foolish and being concerned
about the social evaluation of oneself (Buss, 1980), unlike shame where one feels a deeper sense
of worthlessness. Embarrassment is caused by breaking social conventions and can
consequently only occur in public situations, unlike guilt and shame that can occur when one is
alone (Edelmann, 1981). Finally, while shame and guilt lack nonverbal signals, embarrassment is
uniquely associated with blushing (Miller, 2004).
Explain the function(s) of embarrassment.
Embarrassment is associated with a sequence of non-verbal behaviours including averted gaze,
turned head, inhibited smile, face touching (Keltner, 1995; Keltner & Buswell, 1997). It is thought
that the expression of embarrassment triggers empathy, given that people who display
embarrassment after social transgressions are perceived more positively (Semin & Manstead,
1982). Embarrassment also serves an appeasement function, as it elicits forgiveness in the
perceiver towards the person expressing embarrassment, which can help to restore social
connections (Keltner & Anderson, 2000).
College 4: Describe at least three different motives for why we share our emotions with others
(social sharing).
We share our emotions with others for several reasons. One is that we seek social support. This
can involve emotional support, such as help with re-appraising an event, or practical hands-on
help. Social support also includes physical support like hugs. Talking about emotions can help in
the development of close relationships (Thoits, 1984). Another reason for social sharing is social
comparison. This means that we seek input from others on whether our own feelings in a given
situation are considered appropriate. This is preferably done with others who are similar to
ourselves (Festinger, 1954). A third reason that we engage in social sharing is for social
