This is a summary of all the important concepts given in bold in the book Linguistics by Anne E. Baker and Kees Hengeveld, the 2012 edition. Examples to clarify the concepts are included in the summary where necessary.
creativity: language can always be used to make new and possibly unique meanings.
onomatopoeia: words with a link between form and meaning. Example: “splash.”
constructed languages: designed by humans, such as Esperanto.
computer languages: used to write computer programs and instruct computers
modalities: spoken languages
sign languages
Types of Grammar descriptive grammar: describes the rules for all varieties of the language
prescriptive grammar: prescribes “right” and “wrong” uses of language
diachronic grammar: describing language from the perspective of change over time.
synchronic grammar: a representation of language use at a particular moment in time.
pedagogical grammar: used in schools for learners
Branches of Linguistics: phonetics: speaking and listening, sounds
phonology: syllables, stress and intonation
syntax: sentence structure and formation
semantics: rules for assigning meaning
pragmatics: language use
morphology: word formation and change
Chapter 2: The Language User
3 cognitive abilities required for successful communication, all part of the cognitive system
linguistic competence: knowledge of the language system, including mental lexicon
communicative competence: knowledge of how to use language in differing situations.
knowledge of the world: context
When a word from the mental lexicon is used it is activated, and the words connected to it are
also activated: activation spreading. The related words will be more easy to recognize now that
the first word has been activated. This is the priming effect.
performance: speaking and understanding a language.
aphasia: language dysfunctions caused by damage to the brain.
4 processes of language comprehension
1. speech recognition, analyzing a continuous, variable speech signal (one stream of sounds).
2. word recognition using a cohort model supported by context and priming
1. sentence parsing: grouping words together using syntactic and semantic strategies.
2. interpretation: establishing content of the message and communicative intent of the speaker.
coarticulation: the pronunciation of a phoneme is influenced by the surrounding phonemes. This
makes sounds variable: the “k” in “knight” is silent but the “c” in “cat” sounds like a “k.”
Understanding
bottomup processing: using smaller units of language to understand larger ones.
, topdown processing: using worldknowledge and context to understand smaller units.
cohort: a set of words that is activated in a certain stage of word recognition according to the
cohort model. “B” activates all bwords and “blo” automatically leads to “blossom” in your brain.
context effect: faster recognition of meaning due to the context in which words are used.
parsing: analyzing the meaning of a sentence by grouping together its elements correctly.
Parsing is a syntactic strategy.
Speaking
conceptualizing: of the preverbal message: planning what you are going to say.
grammatical encoding: suitable words from the mental lexicon are fitted into the correct syntactic
structure.
phonological encoding: the corresponding word forms are activated
The result is a phonetic plan that has sufficient information to start articulation, then comes
pronunciation. This process is complex and can result in slips of the tongue or hand.
Many of these processes occur in parallel. The process is therefore incremental.
Chapter 3: Language Acquisition
3.2 First Language Acquisition: 3 models
1. imitation: child mirroring linguistic environment. This model does not account for the application
of grammatical rules
2. innate language faculty (Chomsky)
3. language environment (language input, interaction) & innate faculty both equally important
3.3 Order of First Language Acquisition
Universal stages, if not: speech and language developmental disorder
speech disorders:to do with soundproduction
language development disorders: to do with acquiring linguistic structures
no clear cause: specific language impairment
1. prelinguistic stage before the first word, (1st year)
2. babbling (around 8 months)
3. oneword stage and twoword stage combining words, (12,5 years)
4. differentiation stage more words appearing, sentences, conjugation, plurals (2,55 years)
5. completion phase basic rules are learning yet we always continue to develop (5 years and
up)
omissions of words and sounds
substitutions especially of sounds
overextension giving words a wider meaning
overgeneralization using grammatical rules where they do not apply: developmental errors
because they have not been copied from others. They are a part of learning grammar.
3.4 Factors of Second Language Acquisition
Foreign Language Learning is usually in schools where the target language (language being
learned) is not the medium of communication.
Second Language Acquisition is fully immersed
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