Summary: Designing social research - Babbie
chapter 1
epistemology = the science of knowing
methodology = the science of finding out.
Ordinary human inquiry
1. cause and effects relations
2. cause and effect are probabilistic.
→ science makes these more explicit.
prediction vs understanding
a) predicting future circumstances is essential for satisfying their driven action. It is therefore
important to understand certain patterns. (If I understand why a horse wins the race, I can
make better bets and earn more money).
b) Agreement reality: Those things we know as part of the culture we share with others around
us. (attempts to learn about the world are only partially linked to direct inquiry or experience.
Most is based on what others tell us)
→ This second hand knowledge can help and hinder knowledge acquisition.
example:
tradition: we do not need to start from scratch in inquiry, but hinders fresh new understanding.
authority: acceptance of new truths depends on the status of the discoverer. It is good to listen to
experts, but experts also have some weight when talking about things out of their expertise field
(which can be faulty)
common errors in casual inquiries
a. inaccurate observations
solution: making observations more deliberate
b. overgeneralization: assumed that similar events provide evidence for a general pattern.
solution: replication: repeating research study to test and confirm the findings of an earlier
study.
c. selective observation: after generalization, we tend to focus on future events and situations
that fit the pattern and ignore those that don't.
solution: trying to find deviant cases.
d. illogical reasoning: the exception that proves the rule. + gambler's fallacy
solution: using systems of logic
the foundations of social science
2 pillars of science: logic (providing systematic explanations) and observation( patterns in
observation)
relate to 3 major aspects of social science:
1. theory
2. data collection
3. data analysis
,Theory, not philosophy or belief
today social theory is about how things are, and not what they should be. Thus, scientific theory
cannot settle debates about values.
theory = a systematic explanation for the observations that relate to a particular aspect of life.
Fundamental ideas that underlie social science's efforts to describe and understand social reality.
1. social regularities: finding patterns of regularity in social life, but social life also has many
irregularities. Formal norms in society create regularities that shape social life (minimum
wage, age)
3 objections
> charge of triviality : some of the regularities seem trivial.
> expectations: contradictionary cases may be cited, so its not totally regular.
> people's interference: it may be argued that the people involved in the regularity could upset the
whole thing if they wanted to.
2. aggregates, not individuals: social life that social scientists study generally reflect the
collective behaviour of many individuals. Includes groups, organizations, collectives. these
are often very consistent.
3. concepts and variables
variables = logical sets of attributes. The variable sex is made up of the attributes male and
female
attributes = characteristics of people or things
independent variable: A variable with values that are not problematic in an analysis but are
taken as simply given. Is presumed to cause or determine a dependent variable
dependent variable: a variable assumed to depend on or be caused by another.
the purposes of social research
1. describing the state of social affairs.
2. explanatory purpose: providing reasons for causal relationships.
some dialectics of social research: 4 broad and interrelated distinctions underlie the variety of research
approaches
1) Idiographic and nomothetic explanations (causal reasonings)
idiographic: An approach to explanation in which we seek to exhaust the idiosyncratic causes
of a particular condition or event. Imagine trying to list all the reasons why you chose to
attend your particular college. Given all those reasons, it’s difficult to imagine your making
any other choice.
nomothetic: An approach to explanation in which we seek to identify a few causal factors
that generally impact a class of conditions or events.
Induction: The logical model in which general principles are developed from specific
observations. (start with observation → theory)
Deduction: The logical model in which specific expectations of hypotheses are developed on
the basis of general principles. (starts with theory → explains observation)
Determinism versus agency: Free will versus determined behaviour by environment.
Qualitative (numerical, descriptive) vs quantitative data (non numerical, measured)
,Research proposal
● Introduction
● Review of the Literature
● Specifying the Problem/Question/Topic
● Research Design
● Data-Collection Method
● Selection of Subjects
● Ethical Issues
● Data Analysis
● Bibliography
chapter 12
Evaluation research = refers to a research purpose rather than a specific method. This purpose is to
evaluate the impact of social interventions such as new teaching methods or innovations.
→ is appropriate whenever some social intervention occurs (= action taken within a social context for
the purpose of producing some intended result).
thus: evaluation research is the process of determining whether a social intervention has produced the
intended result.
topics appropriate for evaluation research
1. needs assessment studies: studies that aim to determine the existence and extent of problems,
typically among a segment of the population, such as the elderly.
2. cost-benefit studies: Studies that determine whether the results of a program can be justified
by its expense (both financial and other).
3. monitoring studies: Studies that provide a steady flow of information about something of
interest, such as crime rates or the outbreak of an epidemic.
4. program evaluation/outcome assessment: The determination of whether a social intervention
is producing the intended result.
formulating the problem: issues of measurement
A careful formulation of the problem, including relevant measurements and criteria of success
or failure, is essential in evaluation research. In particular, evaluators must carefully specify:
- outcomes,
- measure experimental contexts,
- specify the intervention being studied and the population targeted by the intervention, and
- decide whether to use existing measures or devise new ones.
types of evaluation research designs
1. experimental design: the classical experiments: experimental designs, more than alternative
research designs, make it possible to analyse whether a specific outcome can be attributed to a
specific policy or intervention
2. quasi-experimental designs: are distinguished from true experiments by the lack of random
assignment of subjects to an experimental and a control group.
a) time series designs: a research design that involves measurements made over some period,
such as the study of traffic accident rates before and after lowering speed limit.
, b) nonequivalent control group: A control group that is similar to the experimental group but is
not created by the random assignment of subjects. This sort of control group differs
significantly from the experimental group in terms of the dependent variable or variables
related to it.
c) multiple time-series designs: The use of more than one set of data that were collected over
time, as in accident rates over time in several states or cities, so that comparisons can be
made.
The Social Context
● Evaluation research entails special logistical problems because it’s embedded in the day-to-
day events of real life.
● The implications of evaluation research won’t necessarily be put into practice, especially if
they conflict with official points of view.
Social indicators research
Measurements that reflect the quality or nature of social life, such as crime rates, infant mortality
rates, number of physicians per 100,000 population, and so forth. Social indicators are often
monitored to determine the nature of social change in a society.
Ethical issues.
● Evaluation research may entail added pressure to produce specific results, as desired by
interested parties.
● Fraudulent research results in an evaluation study can have severe consequences than con-
sequences produced by other types of research.
Chapter 2
Theories try to provide logical explanations.
function in 3 ways
1. prevent being taken in by flukes (if you know why something happens we can predict it in the
future)
2. make sense of observed patterns in a way that can suggest other possibilities.
3. shape and direct research efforts, pointing towards likely discoveries through empirical
observation.
paradigms
= a fundamental model or frame of reference through which to observe and understand (worldview).
They provide logical frameworks within which theories are created.
→ hard to recognize, implicit assumed.
by recognizing that we operate in paradigm:
a) we can better understand the views and actions of others who are operating from a different
paradigm.
b) stepping outside our paradigm allows us to see new ways of seeing and explaining things.
Kuhn paradigm shifts: which scientific theory makes sense depends on the paradigm.
→ anomalies: some observations lay bare the shortcomings of the paradigm.
