Taak 2: PTSD en OCD
PTSD:
Internaliserende/externaliserende PTSD internaliserend: angst naar binnen keren, gevoelens van
schaamte, angst, vermijding, depressie; vaker comorbiditeit met depressie, paniekstoornis,
vermijdende persoonlijkheidsstoornis. Externaliserend: angst naar buiten keren, vijandig gedrag
vertonen, meer irritaties, comorbiditeit met middelengebruik, persoonlijkheidsstoornissen
(antisociale/borderline stoornissen, narcistisch)
Simpele/complexe PTSD allebei heel laag (internaliserend/externaliserend) en lage comorbiditeit;
complex = allebei hoog en dus hoge comorbiditeit (internaliserend/externaliserend)
1. Wat is een trauma?
Bron: https://www.psy-zo.nl/volwassenen/wat-is-een-trauma/
Enkelvoudig trauma
We spreken van een enkelvoudig trauma als iemand in het dagelijks leven last heeft van psychische
problemen die samenhangen met een nare ervaring zoals een ongeluk, een brand, een aanranding,
pesterijen of iets anders naars. We noemen dit een enkelvoudig trauma.
- Vlak na zo’n schokkende ervaring kunnen er klachten ontstaan zoals indringende herinneringen,
flashbacks, vermijdingsreacties in combinatie met veel irreële angst en stress. De klachten kunnen op
den duur uitmonden in angst of paniekaanvallen, depressie, schuldgevoel, somberheid, onzekerheid
of gebrek aan zelfvertrouwen o.a. in sociale situaties.
Specifieke angsten en fobieën
Specifieke angsten of fobieën zoals angst voor dieren, hoogtevrees, vliegangst, hebben vaak een
traumatische ontstaansgeschiedenis en kunnen dan gezien worden als een reactie op die
traumatische ervaring.
- Aan deze specifieke angsten of fobieën zijn meestal toekomstige rampscenario’s gekoppeld,
waardoor er vermijdingsgedrag ontstaat om aan deze gefantaseerde ramp te ontkomen.
Meervoudig trauma en zelfbeeldproblematiek
Als er sprake is van meerdere nare ervaringen gedurende langere tijd, dan spreken we van een
meervoudig trauma. Dit staat voor chronische, zich herhalende nare gebeurtenissen, zoals
herhaaldelijk seksueel misbruik, veelvuldige pesterijen of steeds niet geloofd worden.
- De klachten of problemen zijn divers van aard en gaan vaak over somberheid, angsten en
wantrouwen in combinatie met een uiterst negatief zelfbeeld zoals zich niet de moeite waard voelen,
zich een slecht mens of een mislukkeling voelen.
Complex trauma
Dit is een combinatie van een enkel- of meervoudig trauma met een of meerdere andere
stoornissen zoals (kenmerken van) een persoonlijkheidsstoornis en dissociatieve stoornissen.
- De klachten en problemen van dit type trauma zijn vergelijkbaar met die van een meervoudig
trauma, maar dan ernstiger. De cliënt is meestal niet stabiel en is bij momenten uit het contact met
zichzelf en zijn omgeving, terwijl hij zich hier niet of ten dele van bewust is (pathologische
dissociatie). Deze cliënten zijn meestal gebaat bij een directe doorverwijzing voor psychologische
behandeling in de GGZ.
,Bron: McNally, R.J. (2005). Debunking myths about trauma and memory. Canadian Journal of
Psychiatry, 50, 817-822.
Conclusie van dit artikel: een trauma kun je nooit helemaal vergeten. Je kunt het wel
onderdrukken, maar vergeten doe je het nooit volledig.
Although patients often report that their nightmares are replays of the traumatic experience, this
cannot literally be true.
Accordingly, one cannot assume that spontaneous panic attacks, for example, are implicit expressions
of a dissociated memory of a sexual assault. Indeed, although physiologic reactivity to reminders of
trauma most certainly does occur, it is accompanied by conscious, explicit memory of the traumatic
event.
Thus, even when the body does “keep the score,” so does the mind.
Belief that one has been traumatized can result in subjective and psycho-physiologic responses
indistinguishable from responses of those suffering from PTSD. Accordingly, one cannot infer the
veracity of a memory from the emotional responses accompanying it.
Moreover, as psychologists have known since the days of Ebbinghaus, repetition strengthens
memory, it does not weaken it. The more often a type of event occurs, whether itis flying on
airplanes, eating breakfast, or being sexually abused, the more likely the person is to remember
having experienced that type of event. The details of any particular airplane trip, breakfast, or abuse
episode may meld with others over time, making it difficult to disaggregate many highly similar
instances of the same kind of event. However, repetition itself strengthens memory for the class of
event. Hence, the more a person is traumatized, the more likely he or she is to remember having
been traumatized, even though details of any particular event may become blurred with others.
Failure of a memory to enter awareness for many years does not mean that it has been actively
blocked from awareness by putative inhibitory mechanisms such as repression or dissociation.
The memory wars are not about science against antiscience. Instead, they concern correctly
interpreted science in contrast to incorrectly interpreted science. When the science is interpreted
properly, the evidence shows that traumatic events—those experienced as overwhelmingly terrifying
at the time of their occurrence—are highly memorable and seldom, if ever, forgotten.
2. Wat is PTSD? Klinisch beeld
Bron: Bovin, M. J., Wells, S. Y., Rasmusson, A. M., Hayes, J. P. and Resick, P. A. (2014) Posttraumatic
Stress Disorder, in The Wiley Handbook of Anxiety Disorders (eds P. Emmelkamp and T. Ehring, pp.
457-473 and p. 476 - 478), John Wiley and Sons, Ltd, Chichester, UK. doi:
10.1002/9781118775349.ch23
PTSD valt niet meer onder de Angststoornissen binnen de DSM 5.
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder – DSM 5
Note: The following criteria apply to adults, adolescents, and children older than 6 years. For
children 6 years and younger, see corresponding criteria below.
A. Exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence in one (or more) of the
following ways:
1. Directly experiencing the traumatic event(s).
, 2. Witnessing, in person, the event(s) as it occurred to others.
3. Learning that the traumatic event(s) occurred to a close family member or close friend. In
cases of actual or threatened death of a family member or friend, the event(s) must have
been violent or accidental.
4. Experiencing repeated or extreme exposure to aversive details of the traumatic event(s)
(e.g., first responders collecting human remains: police officers repeatedly exposed to
details of child abuse).
Note: Criterion A4 does not apply to exposure through electronic media, television, movies,
or pictures, unless this exposure is work related.
B. Presence of one (or more) of the following intrusion symptoms associated with the traumatic
event(s), beginning after the traumatic event(s) occurred:
1. Recurrent, involuntary, and intrusive distressing memories of the traumatic event(s).
Note: In children older than 6 years, repetitive play may occur in which themes or aspects
of the traumatic event(s) are expressed.
2. Recurrent distressing dreams in which the content and/or affect of the dream are related
to the traumatic event(s).
Note: In children, there may be frightening dreams without recognizable content.
3. Dissociative reactions (e.g., flashbacks) in which the individual feels or acts as if the
traumatic event(s) were recurring. (Such reactions may occur on a continuum, with the
most extreme expression being a complete loss of awareness of present surroundings.)
Note: In children, trauma-specific reenactment may occur in play.
4. Intense or prolonged psychological distress at exposure to internal or external cues that
symbolize or resemble an aspect of the traumatic event(s).
5. Marked physiological reactions to internal or external cues that symbolize or resemble an
aspect of the traumatic event(s).
C. Persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the traumatic event(s), beginning after the
traumatic event(s) occurred, as evidenced by one or both of the following:
1. Avoidance of or efforts to avoid distressing memories, thoughts, or feelings about or
closely associated with the traumatic event(s).
2. Avoidance of or efforts to avoid external reminders (people, places, conversations,
activities, objects, situations) that arouse distressing memories, thoughts, or feelings about
or closely associated with the traumatic event(s).
D. Negative alterations in cognitions and mood associated with the traumatic event(s), beginning or
worsening after the traumatic event(s) occurred, as evidenced by two (or more) of the following:
1. Inability to remember an important aspect of the traumatic event(s) (typically due to
dissociative amnesia and not to other factors such as head injury, alcohol, or drugs).
2. Persistent and exaggerated negative beliefs or expectations about oneself, others, or the
world (e.g., “I am bad,” “No one can be trusted,” ‘The world is completely dangerous,” “My
whole nervous system is permanently ruined”).
3. Persistent, distorted cognitions about the cause or consequences of the traumatic
event(s) that lead the individual to blame himself/herself or others.
4. Persistent negative emotional state (e.g., fear, horror, anger, guilt, or shame).
5. Markedly diminished interest or participation in significant activities.
6. Feelings of detachment or estrangement from others.
7. Persistent inability to experience positive emotions (e.g., inability to experience
happiness, satisfaction, or loving feelings).
E. Marked alterations in arousal and reactivity associated with the traumatic event(s), beginning or
worsening after the traumatic event(s) occurred, as evidenced by two (or more) of the following:
1. Irritable behavior and angry outbursts (with little or no provocation) typically expressed
as verbal or physical aggression toward people or objects.
2. Reckless or self-destructive behavior.
3. Hypervigilance.