History Revision Material
Imperial Russia, Revolution, establishment of the Soviet Union (1855-1924)
CONTEXT: Russia in 1855
o The Russian Empire was a land of extreme contrasts (frozen northern plains, eastern forests, and
fertile Ukrainian wheat fields)
o Sparsely populated Asiatic lands contrasted European Russia (75% of the population)
o Many ethnic groups, was a factor to its instability (Ukrainians, Muslims, Estonians, etc.)
o Russia’s reputation as a giant among nations versus the reality of its economic and military
weakness
o Tsar Nicholas I ruled from 1825-1855 (ruthless authoritarian)
o The economy was underdeveloped compared to industrialized Western Europe, posing a threat
to the country’s future
o Totally reliant on serfdom
o The army was large but made to serve under fierce discipline, soldiers had no idea what they
fought for, their military reputation was based on a myth
o In 1826 the secret police were re-established: minorities were repressed, censorship enforced,
no freedom to travel
o An unlimited authority demanding unswerving loyalty
o Agriculture was stagnating and transportation as underdeveloped, there was no incentive to
industrialize and thus there was starvation in winters
Autocracy
The principle of inherited absolute monarchy, supported by divine right and the nobility
Feudal Hierarchy (vassalage) a stable system that had been in place for centuries
Lessons of the Crimean War (an external factor to challenge this system):
o Fought against the alliance of the British, France, Turkey, and Sardinia
o The system wasn’t working compared to industrialized (modern) states
o “Great Powers’ require modern, developed technology, economies, tactics, structure, political
systems, and infrastructure
o Reform would create instability
o It was difficult to move from a feudal system to a modern political structure while maintaining
power in an autocracy (A KEY DICHOTOMY)
o “Either we reform at the top of face a revolution from the bottom”
o Russia was rapidly losing its prestige
o War as the great revealer (you can fake it until you’re in a war)
Alexander II and his reforms
o Reigned from 1855-1881
o Known as the ‘Tsar Liberator’ because he abolished serfdom in 1861
o The reforms were a direct response to Russia’s defeat in the Crimean War
o Intended to liberate Russian society from some of its most archaic practices, improve military
and economic efficiency, and preserve the existing socio-political structure.
o Reforms were essentially of conservative nature
Emancipation: The Fundamental Reform
o An uprising during Nicholas I’s reign (Decembrist revolt of 1825) demonstrated the autocracy
couldn’t continue to ignore the demands of reform
o General Dimitry Milutin, later minister of war, advised the new tsar that military reform wasn’t
possible while serfdom existed.
o Abolishing serfdom would create better relations with other powers since it was seen abroad as
a form of slavery
o Free labour could be more efficient than forced labour and improve the economy ((incentive)
, o Serfdom was economically inefficient and impended the emergence of a modern capitalist
economy
o The Edict of Emancipation was promulgated in March 1861
o Serfs were freed from their feudal obligations and allotted land for their needs. Landlords
received compensation in the form of treasury bonds.
o Peasants were indebted to the state and obliged to make redemption payments for over 49
years
o Serfs were incredulous they had to pay for land they thought belonged to them
To what extent did the reforms change Russian Society by 1881?
o All measures taken were to preserve the autocratic system of government, so how significant
could these changes be?
Didn’t Did
o Emancipation was largely criticized by o The New law system
Russia’s more liberal thinkers -loosely based on the British: an open
o Gains for the freedom of serfs were negated western structure and system of procedure
by considerable losses: (jury system)
-the peasant commune tended to replace the -revolutionised justice in Russia
gentry in controlling their lives o Provision and maintenance of roads and
-feudal dues and payments were replaced bridges
with higher taxes o Schooling and medical care became the
reform legally changes their lives but responsibility of the state
practically little changed o The Zemstvo was established (a
o The new law system: representative political system)
-peasants were excluded from the system o State bank was founded in 1860
o Zemstvo votes were heavily weighted o Vigorous industrialization and construction of
towards local landowners, didn’t meet long a railway
or often
o Education: the number of courses and
students was limited, and Sunday schools
were closed
o Freedom of education as taken away when
subversive ideas began to form
o Wanted the attributes of a modern
government and society without changing the
medieval society structure
o You cannot have Russian citizens in an
autocracy, they stay subjects to the tsar
Alexander III and The Age of Counter Reform
o Was never trained to become tsar, was thrown into it when both his father and brother died, his
tutor Pobodonostev was one of the main instigators of his policies (was trained in the art of
military command rather than the science of statecraft)
o Consumed by a sense of duty and conviction that God had singled him out to rule
o A reactionary by nature, determined to hold onto autocracy (embodiment of the ‘Russian Bear’)
o Viewed liberal ideas as a threat to the state (traced back to the assassination of his father)
o Goal: to avoid armed conflict and improve Russia’s standing as a world power (nicknamed the
peacemaker)
o Established that autocracy is unreformable, perfect because God made it (influence
Pobodonostev)
o Patriarchal dynamic ‘the father of all Russians’
o There were no revolutionary stirrings for a decade
, 1. Education and judiciary (repealed all reforms)
2. Okhrana (secret police) was implemented to prevent sedition (extraordinarily effective)
3. Land Captains – putting reliable nobles back in power
o Unimaginative and uninterested in reforming the autocracy
o ORTHODOXY, AUTOCRACY, NATIONALITY
o With him came the last surge of social and political reaction that Russia would know during the
Imperial period
Measures taken:
o Censorship became more rigid
o Access to education for the lower class was sharply curtailed to match their social station
o There was a lot of economic progress: Russia’s first great industrial boom (by his death Russia
had fully entered an industrial revolution)
railroad construction, stimulation of coal, iron, and steel production
factory workers suffered the social trauma and economic difficulties associated with the first
stages of an industrial revolution and many died during the great famine of 1891
o Alexander the III’s reign was marked by reaction, designed to crush the social and political
turmoil and at the same time, its industry flourished
o Pan Slavism was a means of furthering Russian nationalistic aims
o “Complete faith in the strength and truth of absolute power”
o Process of Russification (against Poles, Finns, and Jews) – to reinsert the dominance of Russian
culture and erode other ethnic and cultural identities
o Didn’t seek to achieve grand designs abroad followed a cautious and reserved policy abroad
o Deterioration of relation with Germany
Nicholas II The last of the Romanovs
o The system of autocracy is only as strong and effective as its autocrat
o Zemstvo was the natural breeding ground for discussion and opposition
o “Shall preserve the principle of absolute autocracy as firmly and resolutely as did my late
lamented father”
Biggest Flaws
1. Zero Sum thinking – any compromise was seen as a threat to the autocracy
2. Unimaginative and inflexible
He was an unimaginative product of his time; he took what he learned literally
3. Patriarchy and autocracy (and rigidly sticking to it)
Evidence
o The Khodynka tragedy showed Nicholas’ disconnect (1896)
people came to Moscow for the crowning with the promise of free food, they were
unprepared and more than 30000 died
o Duma: the biggest concession and threat, could have relieved some pressure
o Bloody Sunday 1905: march/petition of peaceful means was escalated, and guards shot into the
crowd. Was a sign of support for the Tsar, to bring him a petition, carried white not red flags.
Serge Witte’s economic reforms: (Finance minister 1891-1903)
o Realized that the root of the problem was for Russia to modernize
o Other countries had modernized using the large middle classes of factory owners and
industrialists as a driving force, Russia lacked the middle class
o Developed a policy of state intervention: the government would directly drive and invest in the
various industries, rather than encouraging Russian and foreign businessmen to do so
Areas of Focus
Railways: Witte knew that communication lines were needed across the country if the economy was to
grow. The Trans-Siberian railway was extended to connect more towns and cities. Main industries that
benefitted from the railway development were iron and coal.
