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Summary Literature Rise of Asia
- Instelling
- Universiteit Utrecht (UU)
Summary of all the literature for the course Rise of Asia, as part of the Global Asia minor
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Lit rise of asiaWeek 1:
Art – visions of the future in meiji Japan, Howell
Question: The Meiji restoration aimed to make the emperor a bigger part of the
government, yet all the laws seem to still be performed by governors, so how is it different
to the Tokugawa?
Japan’s modern history conventionally begins in 1853, when two American naval vessels
forced Japan from isolation from the Western world = Perry mission. Before this Japan was
governed by a, in reality powerless, emperor in whose name shoguns ruled, namely the
Tokugawa. Due to multiple crises the regime was brought down in 1868. The result of this
was the Meiji Restoration.
In Meiji Japan modernity was implemented as public policy in a very successful
manner. Development was implemented to:
- keep Japanese independence
- and grow into a world power.
The Meiji regime managed to accomplish this partly by fostering nationalism among its
people.
Past and future in the Meiji restoration
Before western influences became bigger in Japan, its governors used to look at the past to
inform policies. However, it became clear that Western powers were creating the future.
This led to people thinking about a world not run by the Tokugawa bakufu, but a new
system. For some this looked like completely embracing the West, while others looked
towards a direct rule of the emperor.
Factors that led to this reconsideration:
- Encounter with West
- Comparing Japanese culture to Chinese culture (nativism), opening the world of
political discourse
Creating a Japanese identity
The Meiji restoration was carried out by activists known as shishi, made up of passionate
activists as well as cold politicians. Common factor = loyalty to the throne.
The nativists/nativist networks contributed to a challenging of the status quo and a rise of
political debate about the future of Japan but did not (completely) align with the shishi.
In 1867 the shogun gave his authority to the 15-year-old emperor, but he remained to give
council until a coup d’état in 1868 put an end to that, and the Meiji restoration was born.
This restoration aimed to modernize, while keeping the imperial institution alive which
served as a powerful anchor of political loyalty. This was needed through tumultuous
political and economic reform, like the dismantlement of the Tokugawa social status system,
leading to samurai privileges becoming attainable for all. In addition to this a national school
system was implemented.
In addition to modernizing by building institutions, also the customs of Japan started to
change. This was to show to the Western world that they were ‘civilized’, by changing hair
and fashion to Western ideals. The Japanese state was trying to encourage the people to
,internalize new standards of behavior, which were a part of a larger package of political,
economic, and social reforms designed to secure Japan’s position in regard to the west.
The nostalgic vision of the Satsuma rebels
Samurai-led rebellions formed a threat to the regime. Many of the leaders of these
rebellions played a part in the coup d’état that marked the beginning of the Meiji
government but had later parted ways. They feared that Japan was being taken to far from
the ideals of the old order in addition to the loss of samurai-related privileges. The last and
most serious was the Satsuma Rebellion in 1877. However, after blunders by Saigō’s army,
the state managed to put it down. The rebellion ended with the suicide of Saigō.
The democratic vision of the Freedom and Popular rights activists
The Freedom and Popular rights movement pleaded for some form of parliamentary
democracy. In a way, this movement was about young men trying to assert their own
relevance and have a voice in the developing new nation, rather than giving a voice to all
Japanese people, such as women. In late 1881 a promise was made to bestow a constitution
upon the nation, partly to satisfy this grassroot activism, but also partly to fit with
‘modernity’.
The many uprisings during the Meiji restoration thought that they were entitled to
government intervention in times of need and by showing this with careful acts of violence
they would be met with conciliation. However, the new state, who was focused on their
international position, saw this violence as a challenge against their rule and met these
resistances with more violence and suppression. The people clearly got the message, and
after some time rebellions were a thing of the past.
The statist vision and the Matsukata deflation
The Meiji regime used many techniques to instill in people a sense of nationalism, including
the emperor. Using the school, army and national pageantry he became a symbol for Japan.
In addition to this the government got rid of many status symbols to make the people more
equal as an imperial subject.
Chasing after rapid process meant the displacement of traditional manufacturing.
The state favored industrial and military development over immediate welfare of the
Japanese people. This can be illustrated looking at the Matsukata deflation (1881-1885).
Matsukata was the finance minister who, in 1881, started to reduce the volume of paper
currency to bring its value closer to that of gold and silver. This brought about a recession
that devastated farmers and handicraft producers, but benefited the government, banks
and bigger businesses. He gave priority to the modern sector, while bringing costs to the
average Japanese citizen.
Japan in East Asia
The Meiji government eventually managed to reach their goals, not only by eventually
improving living standards, but also by repressing people with other ideas for Japan’s future.
The unifying factor continued to be the Japanese imperialistic presence in East Asia. This
was already mirrored in the 1850s during a dispute about the stance Japan should take
towards Korea.
, On the other side Korea and China saw in the rapid modernization of Japan, a model
for their own countries.
Week 2:
Ch9 – The age of westernization (1900-1929)
China
After losing the Sino-Japanese war to Japan (1895) China lost its sense of self-confidence, in
addition to the position of China in the international world rapidly declining. After this even
the Qing government decide to embrace modernity and aim for modernization. They did
this with ‘new’ /Xin policies, schools, etc. However, this did not show to be enough. These
drastic reforms, all though drastic in name, were hard to act out. The decentralized system
of reign, as seen in Japan and Germany, did not work the same in China, especially since
many preferred the American-system. In addition to this, the imperial family started to
interfere even more with politics, increasing the number of Manchu people in the
government (only 1% of population), to the discomfort to new-born Chinese ‘nationalists’ ->
popularized due to the Western notion of a ‘nation’. Big name in this movement = Dr. Sun
Yat-sen -> The Revolutionary Alliance
October 1911 = the Republican/Nationalist Revolution in China. Many of the provinces that
declared independence from the Qing, did this with the help of the ‘New Army’ that the
government created to, ironically, save the dynasty. Four months later, in February of 1912,
the then 5-years old emperor gave up the throne and Yuan Shikai came into power as the
first president. Soon after Sun Yat-sen promised the restoration of ‘true’/Ming Chinese
imperial rule. This marked the end of the Qing dynasty and Manchu rule.
The May Fourth movement
With this a big part of traditional China found it’s end as well, with more global and modern
policies. Traditional Chinese writing was changed to a more modern script. Traditional,
Manchu, clothing fell out of favor and was switched out by Western style. The old ‘bad
customs’ of China were renounced, such as food binding, opium, arranged marriages, etc.
The biggest ‘old custom’ of all was Confucianism. China struggled to find a way to
modernize/westernize in a way that still fit China. An example of this is the adoption of the
Western solar calendar, while stile celebrating lunar new year.
The may fourth movement: student anti-Western (mostly anti-Japanese)
Started after World War 1, China supported the allied and they hoped after to gain rule of
German bases in China. However, the German base Shandong was given to Japan, which
made the Chinese feel betrayed.
Enthusiasm for New Culture, “science and democracy”
(Huh? Anti-western protests led to hope for westernization?)
Chen Duxiu -> founded the journal La Jeunesse Nouvelle (New Youth)
China previously looked at Japan as an example of a modernized country, but after World
War 1, the Chinese started to see Japan as an imperialistic aggressor and looked at the West
directly (France).
One of the principal outcomes of this first wave of Westernization (1900-1920?) was
communism. This came from a fundamental belief that industrialization was a natural
, process for humans, and not just a Western idea. Marx outlined the steps which humans
take from feudalism to capitalism to communism in a way that fit with this idea.
1949: final Communist victory (-> need for unity)
All though Mao switched his campaign from the labor workers to the peasants, unlike what
Marxism would suggest.
The Warlord Era 1916-1928
There was a need of unity because after the initial success of the Republican revolution in
1912, China fell into warlordism (a failed state). After the revolution elections were held and
the ‘Nationalist Party’ turned out to be the great winner. However, the first president, Yuan
Shikai was alarmed by this and was allegedly even involved in the assassination of the leader
of the nationalist party. After this Shikai took control until his death in 1916. After this the
country fell apart in various decentralized institutions, but the central government virtually
ceased to exist. This also led (?) to an increase in organized crime, most notoriously in
Shanghai. There was also an increase in more traditional banditry, specifically on the
countryside.
The Qing dynasty modernized its army, but never centralized it. This led to these various,
regional, army commanders to become locally independent forces/warlords after the
collapse of central authority. -> such as Zhang Zuolin, the warlord of Manchuria, who gained
control of Beijing from 1924-1928.
In the meantime, Sun Yat-sen had been driven into exile to Japan under the first president.
After seeking foreign aid when the first president died, he came into contact with the Soviet
Union. With the help of the Soviet Sun Yat-sen was able to establish a new Nationalist Party
army, after the Soviet agreed that China was not ready for communism yet but first needed
to be unified.
After Yat-sen died in 1925, he was followed by Chiang Kai-shek. In 1926 Kai-shek
launched a campaign to unify China, and in 1928 he succeeded in unifying China up to the
Chinese wall. Kai-shek however did not agree with communist standpoints, and in 1928 a
reunified China emerged with a strongly anti-communist national party.
Korea
Korean under Japanese rule
In 1904 the Japanese attack on Port Arthur marked the beginning of the Russian-Japanese
war, as both countries sought to gain more land (Japan in Korea and Russia in Manchuria,
China). Eventually the war was won by Japan, although Russia had a strong enough position
to not pay war reparations, leading to a big Japanese debt.
During the war, Japan occupied Seoul and in 1905 Korea was reduced to a formal
Japanese protectorate. Japan openly annexed Korea as a formal colony in 1910. This colony
was exceptional for the high number of Japanese people who lived in Korea and how strict
the Japanese were. In 1919 this led to public outrage and protest involving as many as one
million Koreans. Al though this protest was suppressed, it changed the way Japan ruled
Korea.
Together with Japanese rule, westernization also arrived in Japan. This went hand in
hand with modernization and the development of a Korean identity. This went against the
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