Research skills summary
Lecture 1: Research process and literature review revisited
Chapter 2: Research and knowledge
2.3: Research versus common sense
Research in business studies and managerial problem solving are not much different from each other
managerial problem solving and the role of the researcher:
- Managers need to have some knowledge and evaluation capabilities to understand the consequences
of their decisions managerial decision making or problem solving, if done systematically, should lead
to better decisions and results than those decisions made exclusively through intuition or personal likes
and dislikes.
- Managers must have the capability to analyse their situations and to use investigative approaches to
decision making and problem solving.
o The systematic procedures and approaches to advancing knowledge suggested by the research
process also serve as a disciplined and systematic procedure for managerial problem solving.
- The researcher explains how information is collected, argues for methods used to obtain results and
explains their limitations they work systematically.
- The researcher has to explain and convince the reader of the purpose and methods of observation so
that the reader can make a judgement about the validity of the results.
2.4: Different research orientations
The research process and the research method used are influenced by the researcher’s background when it
comes to research orientation.
Research orientation = prescribes the relationship between the methods, data, theories, and values of the
researcher explanations and beliefs.
Originality or ‘original contribution to knowledge’ is a basic condition for a scientific study.
Originality = studies that create a new dimension to already existing knowledge.
o Some novel twist, fresh perspective.
o New hypothesis or assumption.
o New and innovative methods of handling an existing topic/knowledge.
Researchers do not preach or ask whether the social activity observed is good or bad; they just analyse, present,
and explain it. In fact, that is the starting point of research that we have a number of assumptions
/speculations, but we should not accept or reject them unless we study them critically and unless we find logical
and reliable explanations to accept or reject them. The researcher thus tries to be as objective as possible.
Different research orientations:
1. Positivism = a single truth exists that can be explained by law-like causal generalization. Knowledge is
objective and is based on observable and measurable facts and relationships. It can predict behaviour.
2. Critical realism = knowledge about social interactions versus physical facts should be approached
differently. Researchers can thus use a variety of methods while staying as objective as possible. It leads
to explanatory explanations and provides insights into antecedents and causes. It encourages
methodological diversity.
3. Pragmatism = knowledge should be relevant and useful to practice. Research should provide solutions
to practical problems. It encourages a variety of methodological approaches.
4. Interpretivism = context is important and knowledge is thus subjective. Concepts and theories cannot
provide richness and are too simplistic. A variety of explanations and interpretations are encouraged
where meanings are more important. It provides context-specific and in-depth understanding.
5. Post-modernism = truth and knowledge based on dominant ideologies and discourses. Researchers are
encouraged to be reflexive and examine dominant discourses and reveal the hidden meanings.
2.5: Induction
Induction = based on empirical evidence. (often associated with qualitative research).
Through induction we draw general conclusions from our empirical observations.
This type of research is often associated with the qualitative type of research.
Theory is the outcome of research.
,The process goes from observations analysis findings theory building,
as findings are incorporated back into existing knowledge (literature/theories)
to improve theories.
Inductive reasoning: the systematic process of establishing a general
proposition on the basis of observation or particular facts (2).
Deduction = based on logic. Draw conclusions through logical reasoning in
this case, it need not be true in reality, but it is logical.
The researcher builds/deduces hypotheses from the existing knowledge (literature), which can be
subject to empirical scrutiny (testing) and thus can be accepted or rejected.
o The researchers main job is not only to build hypotheses from existing knowledge but also to
present them in operational terms (operationalization), to show how information can be
collected to test these hypotheses and the concepts being used.
In this type of research, theory, and hypotheses built on it, comes first and influences the rest of the
research process.
This type of research is often associated with the quantitative type of research.
Deductive reasoning: the logical process of deriving a conclusion from a known premise or something known as
true (1).
Abduction = a theoretical interpretation of an empirical problem that can lead to development of new theories.
In other words, abduction is a continuous process that takes place in all phases of the research process where
the researcher’s observations are confronted with theoretical assumptions and generate a new view of the
phenomenon this means that the original framework and theoretical assumptions of the researcher are
continuously modified as a result of empirical findings.
It is not just a combination of induction and deduction.
The original framework and theoretical assumptions of the researcher are continuously modified as a result of
empirical findings.
2.8: Research never stops
2.11: The researcher’s moral responsibility
Ethics = moral principles and values that influence the
way researchers conduct their research activities. In fact,
ethics apply to all situations and activities in which there
may be actual or potential harm of any kind to anybody.
The moral responsibility of the researcher deals with
social guidelines and constraints upon research
techniques and measurements.
Research findings might lead to action that is
against the principles of the researcher or the
funding organization.
The results might influence an important
decision to be made by policy makers (e.g.:
, regarding mergers and acquisitions, anti-trust measures or standards setting for a particular industry).
Ethical issues arise particularly at the data collection stage.
Reporting your results objectively and honestly is the most important aspect of ethics.
Any misinterpretation of data will lead to misleading results and is ethically wrong.
Chapter 3: Research process and definitions
3.1: The research process
Research is often thought of as a process.
Process = a set of activities unfolding over time.
A main reason for considering it so is that research takes
time and consideration. Insights may be gained gradually,
and may also be modified and changed over time.
A process has a few distinct stages, as different stages entail
different tasks. This can help researchers to perform these
tasks systematically and to understand what is to be done at
a particular stage.
o Figure 3.1 illustrates a typical research process or
cycle. The illustrated process is a simplified one. In
reality, however, the process is not so orderly and
sequential and is rather messy.
Steps 1 and 2
The starting point is the research topic, that is the phenomenon or
theme to be studied.
A research topic is not a research problem. It is usually
broader and more general than a (good) research problem,
such as what organization structure is most efficient.
In a subsequent step, a more specific question is addressed the
research problem.
Steps 2a-8
- Any problem must be captured or represented. This is done by a set of interrelated concepts, or a
‘model’, implicit or explicit (2a).
- Research design relates to the choice of strategy to collect the data needed to ‘answer’ the stated
research problem (3).
- Good measurements are a prerequisite for high-quality empirical research (4).
- Choice of data and how to collect them, from whom, and in what way, are important (5).
- Data must be handled, analysed and interpreted (6).
- Most research efforts are reported in written form (7).
- In business the outcome of research efforts often results in or influences actions (8).
3.2: Levels of research
Going back to Figure 3.1, a distinction can be drawn between activities at the theoretical (conceptual) level (2,
2a) and those at the measurement (empirical) level (4, 5, 6, and 7). Choice of research design may be seen as the
‘bridge’ between activities at the conceptual and empirical levels.
All research requires activities at the conceptual level.
So-called ‘theoretical studies’ deal only with this level (1) (literature review).
An empirical study requires efforts at the conceptual level (2) (data collection and analysis).
, 3.3: Research and knowledge
The main purpose of research is to produce insights or knowledge.
Knowledge implies that we ‘know’ something, and that what we know ‘holds true’, that is, the
produced knowledge is valid.
In addition, research is done to create new insights.
New insights can be acquired in:
- Theories/models.
- Concepts.
- Methods/techniques.
- Facts.
Any research should have an intended contribution, that is to bring or add something new.
3.5: Definitions of important elements of research
Concepts = an abstraction representing an object, a property of an object, or a certain phenomenon.
Concepts are the most critical element in any theory, because they direct what is captured they are
the building blocks of any theory or model. E.g.: cost, income, market share, business strategy.
o Concepts are the foundation of communication. Without a set of agreed concepts, meaningful
communication is impossible.
o Concepts introduce a perspective – a way of looking at the empirical world.
o Concepts are means of classification and generalization.
o Concepts serve as components of theories (models) and thus of explanations and predictions.
Definitions = clarification and precision of concepts are achieved through definitions.
o Conceptual definitions = definitions that describe concepts by using other concepts.
o Operational definition = a set of procedures that describe the activities to be performed to
establish empirically the existence or degree of existence of what is described by a concept.
Operational definitions are crucial in measurement. They tell us what to do and what
to observe in order to bring the phenomenon defined within the range of the
researcher’s experience.
o When we move from the conceptual to the empirical level in research, concepts are converted
into variables by mapping them into a set of numbers/values.
o E.g.: reflect on the following description and discuss if this is true for all types of research.
“When we move from the conceptual to the empirical level in research, concepts are
converted into variables by mapping them into a set of numbers”.
This is not true for qualitative research, as it does not use variables and numbers.
Theory = a set of interrelated concepts, definitions and propositions that present a systematic view of
specifying relations among variables with the purpose of explaining and predicting phenomena.
o It may be viewed as a system for ordering concepts in a way that produces understanding or
insights.
(research) Methods = rules and procedures and can be seen as ‘tools or ways of proceeding to solve
problems’.
o Roles of research methods:
‘Logic’ or ways of reasoning to arrive at solutions.
Rules for communication, i.e. to explain how the findings have been achieved.
Rules of intersubjectivity, i.e. outsiders should be able to examine and evaluate
research findings.
Chapter 4: Research problems, models and literature review
4.1: Research ideas
The starting point of any research effort is some idea or observation that attracts attention and initiates
speculation. However, to make the topic researchable it must be turned into a research question. Because a key
purpose of research is to create new insights, there must be something ‘new’, that is, something we do not
already know. Sources of research ideas are:
- The real world.
- Academic literature. Find a gap in already existing literature resolving existing controversies,
integrating different approaches, or challenging existing beliefs.
- Other people (e.g.: lecturers of your courses).
