SUMMARIES ALL ARTICLES PUBLIC RELATIONS
2023
Inhoudsopgave
WEEK 2 CRISIS COMMUNICATION ................................................................................................................... 2
Article 1: Ndlela 2019 ‘Introduction to crisis communication’ ............................................................................ 2
Article 2: Triantafillidou & Yannas 2020 ‘social media crisis communication’.................................................... 6
Article 3: Lee & Atkinson 2019 ‘exploring the interplay of crisis involvement..’ ............................................... 11
WEEK 3 MEDIA EFFECTS ................................................................................................................................ 14
Article 4: Deephouse 2000 ‘Media reputation as a strategic resource’ ............................................................ 14
Article 5: Etter, Ravasi & Colleoni 2019 ‘social media and reputation formation’............................................ 16
Article 6: Dijkmans, Kerkhof, Buyukcan-Tetik & Beukeboom 2015 ‘two-wave longitudinal study on the effects
of exposure to social media activities of a highly interactive company’ ........................................................... 20
Article 7: Jonkman, Boukes, Vliegenthart & Verhoeven 2020 ‘buffering negative news: individual-level effects
of company visibility, tone and pre-existing attitudes on corporate reputation .............................................. 22
WEEK 4 CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY ............................................................................................... 25
Article 8: Corporate social responsibility: a corporate marketing perspective, Hildebrand et al. (2011) ......... 25
Article 9: Rethinking corporate social responsibility in the age of climate change: a communication
perspective, Allen et al (2016) .......................................................................................................................... 27
Article 10: Companies, Meet Ethical Consumers: Strategic CSR Management to Impact Consumer Choice.... 29
Article 11: “They Did Not Walk the Green Talk!:” How Information Specifcity Infuences Consumer Evaluations
of Disconfrmed Environmental Claims, Orazi (2020) ........................................................................................ 36
WEEK 5 SOCIAL MEDIA MANAGEMENT ......................................................................................................... 42
Article 12 ‘ Sorry but no sorry: The use and effects of apologies in airline webcare responses to NeWOM
messages of flight passengers’ Hooijdonk ........................................................................................................ 42
Article 13 “Don't Forget that Others Are Watching, Too!” The Effect of Conversational Human Voice and
Reply Length on Observers' Perceptions of Complaint Handling in Social Media’ Javornik .............................. 46
Article 14 ‘Managerial response strategies to eWOM: A framework and research agenda for webcare’ Lopes
et al ................................................................................................................................................................... 51
WEEK 6 INTERNAL COMMUNICATION ........................................................................................................... 55
Article 15 ‘The Role of Strategic Internal Communication in Workplace Discrimination: A Perspective of Racial
Minority Employees’ ......................................................................................................................................... 55
Article 16 ''Examining the Effects of Internal Communication and Emotional Culture on Employees’
Organizational Identification ............................................................................................................................ 62
,WEEK 2 CRISIS COMMUNICATION
Article 1: Ndlela 2019 ‘Introduction to crisis communication’
In the Era of Crisis
In the contemporary era, societies grapple with an escalating vulnerability to a range of crises,
spanning natural disasters, organizational issues, terrorism, and financial downturns. Mitroff and
Anagnos (2000) assert that crises are no longer rare aberrations but have become ingrained and
inevitable in the fabric of modern societies. Organizational crises, encompassing various issues from
misconduct to faulty products, pose challenges to image, reputation, and stakeholder relationships.
Advanced communication technologies, especially social media, amplify risks by providing a platform
for grievances. The immediacy of communication in the digital age accelerates the spread of crisis
news globally. The year 2017 witnessed an increase in crisis events, such as hurricanes, floods, and
terrorist attacks. Memories of past crises linger, emphasizing the high probability of extreme weather
events, terror attacks, and health pandemics. Ulrich Beck's concept of a risk society highlights the
global nature of risks and crises, transcending geographical boundaries. Perrow (1999) argues that
increasing technology and interventions in nature create high-risk systems with unavoidable "normal
accidents." The prevailing high-risk and vulnerable society necessitates proactive understanding,
prevention, and preparedness for crises, with communication playing a central role in this ongoing
journey.
Defining Organizational Crisis
The term 'crisis' varies in interpretation between academics and practitioners, encompassing diverse
events or circumstances seen as detrimental to individuals, organizations, or society. Ambiguities
arise due to the broad applicability of the term, with some crises being overt, like natural disasters,
while others remain invisible or hinge on disputed perceptions, as seen in organizational misdeeds.
Defining a crisis is subjective, with organizations often reluctant to acknowledge one, leading to a
lack of clear boundaries. Bland (1998) emphasizes the importance of judgment in crisis management,
advocating for a low threshold to recognize potential threats early on. Organizational crises impact
stakeholder groups, as defined by Freeman (1984). Fink (1986) and Pearson and Mitroff (1993)
underscore threats to an organization's reputation and viability. Coombs (2015) views crises as
perceptual, dependent on stakeholders' perceptions, suggesting that if some stakeholders perceive
an organization in crisis, it is in crisis. Ultimately, crises are about how stakeholders perceive
situations, highlighting their central role in understanding and defining crises.
Characteristics of Organizational Crisis
Charles F. Hermann (1963) identifies three characteristics separating crises from other unpleasant
situations:
1. Threat—threatens the high-priority values of an organization
2. Surprise—is unexpected or unanticipated
3. Short response time—presents a restricted time in which to respond
Hermann contends that managers must identify threats to high-priority goals, grasp the irreparable
consequences of inaction, and be prepared for surprises. Organizational crises jeopardize core
values, demand swift responses within a limited timeframe, and catch organizations off guard,
affecting their economy, reputation, and stakeholder relations.
,Expounding on these characteristics, Lerbinger (1997) identifies three characteristics of crisis:
1. Suddenness
2. Uncertainty
3. Time compression
Lerbinger observes that crises, whether sudden like terrorist attacks or gradual, often display
antecedent signs. Organizational crises entail significant uncertainty, encompassing questions about
cause, blame, response, public perception, resolution, and consequences. The sudden onset and
uncertainty exacerbate decision-making challenges, compelling rapid decisions under stress. Crises
strain an organization's resources, pushing crisis managers to their limits. Gregory (2005)
characterizes crises as high consequence, low probability events with risk and uncertainty, disruptive
to normal business, and potentially lethal to an organization's reputation. Pearson and Mitroff (1993)
define organizational crises as highly visible, surprising, necessitating action, and beyond an
organization's complete control.
Crisis typologies
Numerous attempts to define and classify crises exist, reflecting the diverse nature of these
events. Massey and Larsen note the multitude of crisis definitions, with various categories
identified by researchers like Lerbinger, Seeger, Sellnow, Ulmer, and Coombs. Crises can be
categorized based on tempo, distinguishing sudden crises (unplanned events) and
smoldering crises (slow-moving and less visible). Coombs' Situational Crisis Communication
Theory (SCCT) further divides crises into victim, accidental, and preventable clusters,
emphasizing underlying similarities within each cluster. Typologies, though simplifying
complexity, aid in crisis management by understanding characteristics and progression
processes. It's crucial to recognize that one crisis can encompass elements from multiple
categories, illustrating the intricate nature of crisis management.
, Crisis Management: A Strategic Process
Crisis management research reflects a paradigm shift, evolving from a narrow event-focused
perspective to a broader, proactive approach conceptualizing crises as processes rather than isolated
incidents (Frandsen & Johansen, 2010; W. Timothy Coombs, 2015). Shrivastava (1995) emphasizes
that a crisis is an extended process in time and place, challenging the notion of it being merely an
event. Mitroff and Anagnos (2000) assert that modern crisis management goes beyond addressing
crises; it involves anticipating, preventing, and effectively managing crises. The overarching goal is to
minimize damage to organizations and stakeholders, drawing valuable lessons for future
management processes.
The crisis management process is often divided into three phases:
1. Pre-crisis
2. Crisis response
3. Post-crisis
Jaques (2007) proposes a non-linear, relational model for issue and crisis management. Unlike
sequential steps, the model views interdependent activities as clusters, suggesting a holistic
approach. Elements, such as crisis prevention and preparedness, occur simultaneously, fostering
integration. Post-crisis learning informs preparedness, highlighting the dynamic nature of the model.
Jaques’ model presents four major phases in crisis management, with each building around a cluster
of activities:
1. Crisis preparedness
2. Crisis prevention
3. Crisis incident management
4. Post-crisis management
Of the four phases, the first two activities constitute part of the precrisis. Based on the elements
expounded in Jaques’ model, I will use in this book the three-phase classification, in which crisis
communication clusters are grouped into pre-crisis, crisis response and post-crisis phases. In the
adapted model, I start with crisis prevention phases by tapping into other management functions
(issues, risk and reputation management) as espoused by Coombs (2015). I also suggest separating
the elements of reputation management and relationship management in crisis prevention. Although
these management functions are placed in the prevention phase, I regard them as ongoing functions
throughout the crisis management cycle. A stakeholder-oriented culture in the centre encourages
crisis managers to continuously be responsive to general stakeholder interests and concerns
(Fig. 1.1).
