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Complete samenvatting aantekeningen New Media Challenges

Name: Complete samenvatting aantekeningen New Media Challenges
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New Media Challenges

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Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (VU)

Een uitgebreide en complete samenvatting van al mijn aantekeningen van de colleges van New Media Challenges - Bachelor en Pre master. In de aantekeningen staan de wetenschappelijke artikelen kort omschreven, zoals ook in de colleges is behandeld. Ik raad aan om de artikelen zelf ook goed door te ne...

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Lecture 1 (introduction): Utopian and Dystopian view

New media challenges:
- Define, describe and discuss important new media challenges from a public, corporate and
private domain
- Take a theory- and evidence based approach to address these issues
- Focus on normative and ethical aspects of new developments / technological possibilities

Organized around 3 spheres (cf. Habermas, 1989)
- Public sphere: communication processes in society involving information that is in principle
available for everyone (e.g., public communication / political communication)
- Organizational sphere: Communication processes involving connections between
organizations, organizations and their surroundings and organizations and their stakeholders /
clients (e.g., corporate communication, PR, marketing)
- Private sphere: Communication processes involving connections between individuals, the
individual production, and processing of messages (e.g., interpersonal communication, media
effects)

Different versions about what a future look like. Two distinct views of what a future will look like.

- Utopia: a community or society that possesses highly desirable or nearly perfect qualities for
its citizen (positive)
- Dystopia: a community or society that is undesirable or frightening (negative)

We see this in art, literature, science, policy making.
è In science and policy making more utopia view

Functions of utopian worldview
- Optimism about the future (Driving force for society)
- Strong belief in technological development
- Push (from government or company) to invest in technological developments
- Cultural change toward individuation and Individual empowerment (facilitated by technology,
people more self-relying)

RAI example: we trust and believe in what technology can bring us.
è Changing of century, you see this believe much

Negative thoughts about technology
è Picasso: computers are useless
è Winner: computers suck the life from people’s souls, much like heroin

Industrial revolution
th
è A rapid major change in economy (as in England in the late 18 century) marked by the
general introduction of power-driven machinery or by an important change in the prevailing
types and methods of use of such machines
è First: 1784 (1760-1820). Mechanical production, railroads and steam power
è Second: 1870 (1870-1914). Mass production, electrical power, and the advent of the
assembly line. Positive revolution: mass production leads to cheaper products, more products
available for the population. Negative: wining the gap (industrials and workings).
è Third: 1969 (1969-?). Automated production, electronics and computers. Beginning of digital
revolution, which could lead to digitalization. Fear of people becoming isolated.
è Third or fourth: NOW! (2012-?). Artificial intelligence, big data, robotics and more to come

We can only speculate about the fourth revolution, we see trends (and trends that not working).

, Lecture 2: Technological determinism or social construction of technology to explain media
infiltration

Read the article by Bijker to get an overall idea of this line of reasoning.
è Get the big idea of what SCOT is about
è Understand steps and sets of definitions, which you need to understand of how SCOT
thinking works
è Do not need to know the details
è Be aware of his way of thinking how technology is developed
è Core principles about this theory

One’s utopia could be a dystopia for another one.
è You will always see the balanced view in news reporting, art etc.
è They are always in balance
è We see this through all history and revolutions

Technological developments drive certain changes in society and world economy.
“Technological should enforce changes in the society, world economics.”

Today’s college: nuance the statement “Technological should enforce changes in the society, world
economics”.
è Zoom in on the field of communication (Castells)
è Technological Determinism versus Social Construction of Technology (Bijker)
o Is it the technology which drives what is happening or is it the society (social forces)
which is driving what is happening (on a sociological point and technological point)?

The power of technology?
è Advances in technology bring about changes (for good or for worse)
è However, is the force of technology that strong?
o That overcome what happens
è Or do people have influence on what technology looks like?
o And how we make use of technological developments

Decide a technological chip about how society looks like?

Two important researchers of today’s class:
Jan van Dijk – the Network Society
Manuel Castelles – the Information Age

Manuel Castelles, Information age: the modern age regarded as a time in which information has
become a commodity that is quickly and widely disseminated and easily available especially through
the use of computer technology.
è How much information do we actually share?
è The information has become a commodity (koopwaar); something that can be sold and bought
è Information can be shared with many people
è This information technology is also important, because without it, it would not be possible to
have this information age

The impact of the internet on society: Castells (2014):
è Provides insight in how Internet is become popular and what this mean for society

Without the development of the internet, it would not be possible to have a global network. The
internet is vital for the development of the internet. Without the internet, there wouldn’t be much
information online.

The internet is the decisive technology of the Information Age:
è It is estimated that approximately 95% of all information existing in the planet is digitized
o But, you also need a network to share this information

, è Opportunities to connect without time and space restrictions are almost endless
è Without internet, not much information would be online

According to Castelles: it is the vastness (uitgestrektheid) of potential changes caused by the Internet
leads to utopian or dystopian views. It is the infinity, the endless opportunities to share information,
which leads to utopian and dystopian views. As we don’t know how big it really it, it is difficult to define
it and that triggers the romantic (either positive or negative) perspectives of it
è It is so big, there is no “human scale” -> how can we be sure about the consequences for
society?

Misunderstanding:
è There is a gap between social change caused by the internet and its understanding of the
change
è This is why we need “internet studies” and need to know more about it
o It’s not the hard side which is need to be studied, but it is the soft side to get rid of the
major causes of technologies
è But, maybe even more important, also an understanding that technology is not solely
responsible for social changes
o It is also important to understand how people behave!
è We should see the internet as material culture
o It is not the technology, but it is a culture which come with it

Technology as material culture “we should see the internet as a material culture”
è Technology is not created in a social or institutional vacuum (created as social institution) and
not created without a purpose (doel)
è Users appropriate and adapt technology, rather than simply adopt it
o Use it (technology) for their own goods and purposes
o You can not push technology into someone’s system, they use it for their own good
è Technology changes all the time (looks and use)
o You need the social influences to define what the effects of technologies really are
è By this, they modify and produce it in an endless process.

Conclusion: how technology develops and influences society is not as predictable, but highly
dependent on how people or society deals with this technology

è To assess the relevance of Internet in society we must recall the specific characteristics of
Internet as a technology. Place in the context of the transformation of the overall social
structure, as well as in relationship to the culture characteristics of this social structure.

Discussion: is it technology what drives what we do? Or do we (the society) drive technology?
Is it about technological determinism or SCOT?

Technological determinism (TD)
è Technology determines societies development, structure and cultural values
è Is getting less credits by research, intellectually poor
è Technology develops autonomously, one-dimensional view

versus

Social Construction of Technology (SCOT: Pinch & Bijker, 1984)
è Technology does not determine human action, but human action shapes technology and its
uses (the way we use technology)
è In order to understand how technology is used, we should understand how that technology is
embedded in its social context
è Developed to criticize Techological determinism (TD)
Sometimes, we see that media is getting blamed about what happens in society.

Format of newspaper articles
è Typical example of a news article:
o Inverted triangle:

, o First line mentions: who, what, where, when
o Followed by some more details
o And finished by even more detailed information
è This is different from other text such as novels:
o Slowly setting the scene
o Building tension
o Taking time to introduce characters
o Plot in the end
è This news article structure is convenient for the reader
o Scan the paper for interesting topics
o Then decide whether to continue reading or not
o But, what was also the prime reason for this format?
è Newspapers adopted the format of headline with relevant information
o Followed by less details
o A clear example of how technology drives communication behavior (TD)
è Renaissance – French revolution – Reformation - Movable type (TD) “Boekdrukkunst” – really
cheap and quick production of pamphlets
è Have these social movements quickened the technological innovation (SCOT)?
o Sometimes, the things go hand in hand
o Society and technological things

The telegraph might have shaped newspaper stories.
th th
è In the 18 and early 19 century, newspaper articles had no headlines
è Articles looked like short stories
è During the American Civil War newspaper in the west received news from agencies in the
east, mostly using the telegraph

Social Construction of Technology (SCOT, Bijker):
è Technology does not determine human action, but human action shapes this technology
è How technology is used by people cannot be understood without understanding of how it is
embedded in the social environment
o We do need it to
o It’s not a strong push of technology, it could be completely being the other way around
è Social and cultural changes could ask for technology changes
o These things could also go hand in hand
è How do we learn from the past?
o According to SCOT: when trying to explain success or failure of technology: maintain
symmetry in your explanations
o We try to pinpoint it to technological appointments
o Failure: we will explain this by sociological explanations

SCOT can be laid out in three consecutive research steps:
è Relevant social group and interpretive flexibility. Relevant social groups can be identified
by looking for actors who refer to the artifact in the same way.
è Researchers follows how interpretive flexibility diminish, because some artifacts gain
dominance over others and meanings converge, and in the end one artifact results from this
process of social construction. Key concepts are: closure and stabilization. (Both concepts are
meant to describe the result of the process of social construction. Stabilization stresses
process: a process of social construction can take several years in which the degree of
stabilization slowly increases up to the moment of closure. Closure: a concept stemming from
SSK, highlights the irreversible endpoint of a discordant process in which several artifacts
existed next to one another.
è The processes of stabilization described in the second step are analyzed and explained by
interpreting them in a broader theoretical framework. Central concept: technological frame.
Which structures the interactions among the members of a relevant social group, and shapes
their thinking and acting. Is built up when interaction ‘around’ an artifact begins.
o A person will be included in more than one social group, and thus also in more than
one technological frame.
o Technological frame describes the actions and interactions of actors, explaining how
they socially construct a technology.

, o Since a technological frame is built up around an artifact and thus incorporates the
characteristics of that technology, it also explains the influence of the technical on the
social.

Artifact is described through the eyes of relevant social groups. Social groups are relevant for
describing an artifact when they explicitly attribute a meaning to that artifact.

An artifact can be distinct in two different ways:
- Closed-in hardness: occurs when the humans involved have a high inclusion in the associated
technological frame
- Closing-out obduracy: sees no alternative, but to leave the technology aside and pick up
something else

The three-step research process, amounts to:
è Sociological analysis of an artifact to demonstrate its interpretive flexibility
è Description of the artifact’s social construction
è Explanation of this construction process in terms of the technological frames of relevant social
groups

SCOT aims at helping researchers to give a detailed and insightful account of the development of
technology in society.
1. It is a mistake to think that studies of SCOT only focus on the early stages of an artifact’s
development, the design and prototype phases.

The symmetry principle (SCOT):
All arguments explaining success or failure of technology should be treated equally:
è Arguments based on social, cultural, political, economic or technical elements, be sure to treat
them equally

However, when “learning from the past” we often tend to:
è Explain success by “technical superiority”
è Explain failure by sociological explanations (e.g. political, economic or cultural reasons)

By this we run the risk of making false claims that “improved technology means success”, we often
tend to:
è Explain success by technical superiority
è Explain failure by sociological explanations (for example: political, economic or cultural
reasons)
è By this, we run the risk of making false claims that “improved technology means success”

It is not the technology that pushes the success of the bike. Far more pushes by functions (like
transportation, safety, gender issues)
è So, it’s social factors instead of technological factors.

Castells’ main argument: technology is not created in a social or institutional vacuum. Users
appropriate and adapt technology, rather than simply adopt it.
è Believes in the power of people, not so much in the power of technology
è Technology is not so much created by an institutional vacuum, but you need people, you need
a culture, you need values that adept how technology is created and reduced
o This might be the reason why the internet has become so successful

This could also explain the success of the Internet:
è The development of the World Wide Web (is only a part of the Internet) could be part of the
success
è But also the decision of the “early founders” of the Internet to keep it under loose management

o There should be no one party who is controlling what is on the Internet, this allow
people to adapt and appropriate it to their own users

,The internet would be so successful, if there weren’t be other forces. The force in society where the
structure is changing, culture and behavior. But similarly, important:
è Changes in societal structure, culture and behavior with networking as prevalent
organizational form: the network society
è If that wasn’t the case, the internet would be so successful

The internet age or the network society is not hard wired (bedraad), not defined by technology. But it is
defined by persons and the ways how we want to communicate with people, ways how we want to
interact with people, wishes for people to live on a particular place
è Without the soft factors, the internet or the network society would not be a success
è The digital networks enable for this

You should not look at the hard wired factors, you should look how people behave and change the
way they behave in order to understand this.

It’s too simple to look at technology in order to explain this success. This is quite often done when you
read articles.

The (global) network society – Jan van Dijk:
è Constructed around personal and organizational networks
è Powered by digital networks (and communicated by the Internet)
è Emerged through interaction between technological developments and sociocultural changes
(the me-centered society)
è Global and no boundaries

Castelles said that in the last decades, there is a more me-centred society:
è Not so much egoistic or egocentric way of living, but a way of living in which individuation
has become important.

In the last decades, social relationships (the way how we behave, family structures or friend networks)
has changed and person individuality and self-development has become more important. That has
changed a lot of stuff. Not only for individuations but also within organizations. Globalization has not
so much driven by technology, but also by a wish of people to explore and which can be enabled by
these technological changes.

Individuation:
è According to Castelles:
è Social relationships are reconstructed:
o Individuality
o Self-developments
o Importance of individual interest and values
è Also materially produced:
o New forms of organizing economic activities: globalization
o Transformation to metropolitan life: many people are moving towards the city and live
in a different way and communicate with others
è Individuation does not mean isolation: This need for personal development, might be a strong
social factor which people want to like minded others. Still feel the need to stay in contact with
friends and family.
o Personal wishes of people which pulls or drives technological developments.
è The internet allows for connecting with:
è Like-mined others
è Family and friends
è Work relations
è New people

Without this hard wise aspects of the network society being there, will this not be possible. Without the
internet, we wouldn’t be able to live the life we do. But, focus on the social soft factors in stead of
starting with this technologies that triggered all these social things.

,Thus: these two developments (technological innovations and individuation) may even facilitate
sociability.

Conclusion of the lecture:
- Internet does not produce (positive or negative) effects by itself
o It has specific effects in altering the capacity of the communication system to be
organized around flows that are interactive, multimodal, asynchronous or
synchronous, global or local and from many to many, from people to people, from
people to objects, and from objects to objects, increasingly relying on the semantic
web
- It facilitates (and interacts with) social and cultural developments
o If we want to develop new stuff, technology is needed
- So, rather than causing large-scale developments and societies based on networks, it
enables these movements.
o In other words: without the Internet we would not have seen the large-scale
development of networking as the fundamental mechanism of social structuring and
social change in every domain of social life
o Human power is really needed
- Understanding how (people make use of) these technical (to improve our well-being or be
more efficient) and social components interact is of key importance
- Communication science is at the heart of that
o The network society is an open-ended form of social organization that conveys the
best and the worse in humankind

, Lecture 4: Apathy and surveillance: the present and future of privacy

Lecture of today in four parts:
1. What is privacy?
2. Theories of information sharing
3. Privacy and online communication
4. Facing future privacy challenges

1. What is privacy?
Privacy is not a concept that is not connected to the point we considering it. Many different people
have different ideas about what privacy is. Privacy happens in a context, it means that privacy is very
depended on where it is happening.
è People have different ideas about what privacy is
è Distance between private and public spaces
è The place where you come from, influences your thoughts about privacy

Privacy is defined by times.
è Difference of the way we think of privacy is because the time we are in at
è Difference between private and public is changing, so as a society is changing

Definitions of privacy:

The basic definition of privacy (Warren & Brandeis): the right to be left alone.
Progression in time, towards the modern; the emphatic starts beginning with selective access (to our
homes, information, parts of our identity). As you can see in the definitions of Altman and Westin, they
talk about selective control / access to information about ourselves.
è Left definition is old skool, powerful but useful
è What should we share with whom?

- Warren & Brandeis, 1890: The right to be left alone
- Altman, 1975: The selective control of access to the self
- Westin, 1968: The ability to determine when, how and to what extent information is
communicated to other
Today’s college, we focus on the two other approaches (Westin and Altman).

How is privacy crucial and studied for different purposes?
è Definition of Warren and Brandeis is old and not very completed
- Westin, 1967:
o Political-Scientist approach “People have a need for privacy”.
o Westin studied privacy as a need.
o Humans need privacy, just like they need food, water, shelter etc.
o Almost a right; privacy as a right
- Altman, 1975:
o Psychological approach “Privacy is necessary for the development of identities”.
o You create your own identity because of privacy; it’s when you are capable of who
has access to your private information

, o Privacy is where humans grow and discover of who they are

Westin, 1967:
è Political scientist
è Starts from the idea: “privacy is a need”
è Privacy is a basic state
è Privacy is almost a right
è Westins’ study goes deeper: What are the states of privacy
o What are the essential elements of privacy
è Westins’ study goes deeper: What are the objectives of privacy?
o What individuals want to obtain is an optimal level of privacy (this is coming back over
and over again). What shall we look for?
o We want to achieve the highest level of privacy
o What is the scope?

An optimal level of privacy is coming back over and over again. An optimal level of privacy is not an
on/off switch, it is an optimal level. Everybody has a different approaches of privacy and has a various
optimal level of privacy.
è For example: sharing a home with everyone else. Do you want to share things with others or
not?
è There is no total privacy and zero privacy: it is your level or a user’s level of privacy

Westin, four states of privacy:
- Solitude (eenzaamheid): no observation from
others. There can be a place where you are not
observed by others.
- Intimacy (vertrouwlijkheid): small group of people
with a strong bond. You can create deep relations
with a small group of people with who you share
deep information. Doesn’t have to be everyone.
- Anonymity (anonimiteit): the right not to be
identified. People not knowing who you are.
- Reserve (gereserveerd): the right not to share
some information, respected by others. You decide
not to share information with others. This must be
respected. Close to what we mean by traditional
privacy.

Westin, four objectives of privacy (if privacy is giving by
the four elements, what should people look for? What do
people want to achieve when they have optimal privacy):
- Personal autonomy (persoonlijke autonomie): not manipulated.
Privacy has existed because when you achieve a level
of privacy and your privacy is respected, you are less
likely to be manipulated, less likely to judged our
coursed by others.
- Self-evaluation (zelf evaluatie): freedom to think,
process information and make plans. According to
Westin, privacy is also necessary in order to have
space to process information and make plans.
- Emotional release (emotionele vrijlating): a private
space. There is a place where you just not just insight
everybody else expecations do.
- Limited and protected boundaries (gelimiteerde en
beschermde grenzen): setting boundaries (a wall), able
to decide with whom you share information. Ability to
only communicate with certain people

, This is the ground on which we base everything else about privacy.

Altman, 1975:
è Is much more in the sociopsychology of privacy
è Irwin Altman formulated the Privacy Regulation Theory, which aimed at understanding why
individuals alternate between states of sociality and solitude.
è According to Altman, privacy regulates interaction, which is essential to create one’s identity
(decide who they are).

Altman: 5 characteristics of privacy (some are matching with the others). Very similar to Westin, but
some are more focused on the sociopsychology parts:
- Dynamic process (dynamisch proces): individuals regulate their boundaries differently
depending on the environment. You might decide to share more information in a context,
instead of sharing in other contexts.
- Individuals vs group levels (individueel vs groep level): individuals perceive their own
privacy differently from that of their community/family. We want more privacy on ourselves
than granted by the government or the community we live in. Different ideas of what privacy
should be for individuals and for groups. Might be a difference there.
- Desired vs actual level (gewenste vs huidige level): desired level of privacy might be
lower/higher than those individuals have in the given context. Maybe we would like never to
share information with apps.
- Optimum level (inverted u shape) (optimaal level): there is such a thing as both too much and
not sufficient privacy. An optimum (highest top of U-shape is the optimum). Or not enough
privacy, too much information shared with others or you space is too crowded (low privacy).
Privacy is not zero or any number, it is a level.
- By-directional (inwards and outwards) (directionaal): individuals might have different
sensitivities for their action towards others’ privacy and others’ action towards them.

5 characteristics of privacy defined by Altman (1975)
Boundaries (walls)
è Boundaries are more a symbolic thing, we want to protect some information for people.
è We shield some information for some people.
è A boundary is most often what is put between the life that is public…and what needs to stay
private

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