HOORCOLLEGE 1
Sex = sexual anatomy and sexual behaviour
Gender = state of being male or female
Sexual behaviour = produces arousal and increases chance of orgasm
History
- 100 years ago -> religion provided most informaton about sexuality
- Ancient Greeks -> homo- and heterosexuality, als je 2 mensen losknipt, gaan ze opzoek naar hun wederhelf
- 5th century Christans -> wet dreams, kleine wezentjes en hekserij
- Muslims -> sexual intercourse as one of the fnest pleasures in life
- Mannen en vrouwen waren hetzelfde geslacht alleen geslachtsdeel bij vrouw is naar binnen gericht
Vrouwen maken ook sperma, aangemaakt in de hersenen
Important researchers
- Sigmund Freud
Physician -> founder of psychiatry and psychoanalysis
- Henry Havelock Ellis
Physyican -> modern sex and masturbategedrag
Forerunner of modern sex research : women are also sexual creatures, sexual deviatons are harmless
- Richard von Kraf-Ebing
Psychiatrist -> psychopathia sexualis (sexual disorders based on patentss experience)
- Magnus Hirschfeld
Founder of sex insttute, frst large-scale sex survey, almost everything destroyed
Introduced transvestte / travestet
- Alfred Kinsey
Zoologist, entomologist, sexologist
Kinsey Reports (books about sexual behaviour) + Kinsey Scale (measuring sexual orientaton)
- Masters and Johnson
Observatonal sex research -> physiology of sexual response and sexual disorders
Sexology across tme
- Before 1900 -> religious and legal approach (good or bad)
- Around 1900 -> medical, psychiatric, psychological approach (healthy / normal or unhealthy / abnormal)
- 1973-2000 -> constructvism vs medicalizaton (interacton between 2 people)
Media
- Cultvaton = view that exposure makes people think that what they see represents the mainstream of what
really occurs (tv programmass)
- Agenda setng = idea that the media defne what is important and what is not by which stories they cover
(hoe meer in de media, hoe belangrijker)
- Social learning = idea that the media provide role models whom we imitate (rolmodellen immiteren)
Cross-cultural perspecives on sexuality
- Culture = traditonal (passed down from generaton to generaton) ideas and values transmited by symbols
to a group which infuence paterns or behaviour
- Ethnocentrism = tendency to regard oness own culture as superior, belief that its own customs are the
standard by which other cultures should be judged
- All societes regulate sexual behaviour somehow
o Incest taboos -> nearly universal
o Condemnaton of forced sexual relatons
- Societes respond diferently to
Sexual techniques (kissing), masturbaton, premarital sex, extramarital sex, sex with same-gender partner,
standards of atractveness
- Signifcance of cross-cultural studies
Variaton in human sexual behaviour, personal standards and behaviour in perspectve, evidence concerning
importance of culture and learning in shaping of sexual behaviour
,Cross-species perspectves on sexuality
- Masturbaton, same-gender behaviour, sexual signalling -> other species too
- Sexual behaviour is more instnctvely controlled among lower species and more controlled by the brain and
higher species
- Animals sometmes use sexual behaviour for nonsexual purposes
Sexual health perspectve
- Sexual health = state of physical, emotonal, mental, and social well-being in relaton to sexuality
- For sexual health to be atained and maintained, the sexual rights of all persons must be respected,
protected and fulflled
,HOORCOLLEGE 2
Evolutonary perspectve
- Sociobiology = applicaton of evolutonary biology to understand the social behaviour of animals (humans)
Evoluton = theory that all living things have acquited their present through gradual changes in their genetc
endowment over successive generaton
Natural selecton = process in nature resuling in greater rates of survival of those plants and animals that are
adapted to environment
Sexual selecton = specifc type of selecton that created diferences between males and females
- Evolutonary perspectve focuses on the psychological mechanisms shaped by natural selecton
Assumes that every characteristc we observe must have some adaptve signifcance
Men and women face diferent adaptve problems in matng -> theory diferent sexual strategies -> same
Psychological theories
- Psychoanalystc theory (Freud)
Human behaviour is driven by sex drive or sex energy (libido) and death (Thanatos)
Humans have a personality structure -> id (pleasure), ego (reality), superego (idealism, conscious)
o Stages of psychosexual development
Oral (tll 1 year) Stmulatng lips and mouth
Anal (2 year) Controlling bladder and bowel movement
Phallic (3-6 year) Interest in genitals
Oedipus complex = sexual atracton of a boy to his mother
Latency (6 year – adolescence) Impulses are repressed or in quiescent state
Gental Urges reawaken and become more specifcally genital, other
phases fuse together to promote reproducton
o People do not mature from one stage to the next -> traces of earlier stages remaining in personality
Most of its concept cannot be evaluated scientfcally -> data from disturbed patents of Freud
Overemphasis on biological determinants of behaviour and male-centred
- Learning theories
Grew out of behaviourism movement, observable behaviour
Sexual behaviour represent learned associatons and new associatons can be learned
o Theories
Classical conditoning (Pavlov) : seksuele aantrekkingen en woorden conditoneren
Operante conditoning (Skinner) : reinforced behavior increase, punished behavior decrease
Geslachtsziekte -> geen condoom -> beloning en straf te ver uit elkaar -> geen associate
Social learning (Bandura) : immitatng behaviors that we observe in others
- Exchange theories
Exchange theory = based on principle of reinforcement, assumes that people will choose actons that
maximize rewards and minimize costs
o Principles of Social Exchange Theory
Comparing profts of relatonship provides over alternatve relatonships
Believing rewards are proportonate to costs in a relatonship
Men and women choosing mates who match them on physical and social characteristcs
- Cognitve theory
Cognitve theory = study of the way people perceive and think (what we think, infuences what we feel)
Same situaton -> diferent percepton -> some perceptons are handy and some are not
Psychologists -> ratonalizing peopless thoughts
o Gender Schema Theory
Gender schema = set of atributes that we associate with males and females
Schemas predispose us to process informaton on basis of gender
Schemas flter out stereotype-inconsistent informaton, making them slow to change
o Personality theories
Personality theory = theorizes that relatvely stable individual diferences drive behaviour
Big Five (extraversion, agreeableness, openness)
Erotophilia (positef tegenover seks) en erotophobia (negatef tegenover seks)
Sensaton seeking (tendency to pursue thrilling and risky actvites -> no condom)
, Sociosexuality (willingness to have sex without commitment or emotonal connecton)
Critcal theories
- Feminist theory
o Gender is a dimension of inequality, womenss sexuality has been repressed and depressed but rarely
expressed, gender roles restrict people
o Intersectonality = approach that says that we should simultaneously consider a personss multple
group membership and identtes
- Queer theory
o Heteronormatvity = belief that heterosexuality is only patern of sexuality that is normal and natural
Sociological perspectves
- Assumptons
o Every society regulates the sexuality of its members
o Basis insttutons afect the rules governing sexuality
o Appropriateness of a partcular sexual behaviour depends on the culture in which it occurs
- Symbolic Interacton Theory
Human nature and social order are products of symbolic communicaton among people (kopje kofe)
- Script theory
Sexual behaviour is a result of elaborate prior learning that teaches us an etquete of sexual behaviour
- Sexual felds
Sexual feld = site populated with people with erotc dispositons that they project on space and each other
The resultng interacton refects each otherss desires, mediated by the acceptable modes of interacton
- Insttutons
Sexuality is infuenced by powerful social insttutons -> religion, economy, family, medicine, law
Biopsychosocial perspectve
Each theory has its own limitatons -> biopsychosocial perspectve
Takes a holistc approach to the study of sex consider the entre person and the mind and body are interconnected
Types of sampling
Sample selecton = identfy target populaton and draw a smaller group you will actually study
- Random selecton = everyone in target populaton has an equal chance of being included in the sample
- Probability sampling = everybody of the populaton has a known probability of being included in the sample
- Snowball sampling (response driven) = partcipants suggest names of future partcipants to be recruited
- Convenience sampling = sample chosen in a haphazard manner (most common)
Non-experimental studies
Observatons are made, variables are not directly manipulated or changed
- Survey (self-report)
Partcipants report on own sexual attudes and behaviours
o Kinsey Reports -> rare manier van vragen (wanneer voorgekomen ipv of het is voorgekomen)
o Natonal Health and Social Life Survey -> more conservatve than Kinsey
o Natonal Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior -> largest and most diverse survey
o CASI -> ofers privacy of writen questons while accommodatng poor readers
Strengths : quick and easy for collectng data, multple methods of administraton
Limitatons : problem of refusal or nonresponse, self-selecton or volunteer bias, socially desirable answers,
purposeful distorton (enlargement and concealment), memory, difcultes with estmates
Good sex survery : atenton to use of language, appropriate for audience, avoid leading and loaded
questons, atenton to potental queston order efects
Before use in practce : reliability (internal consistency, test-retest, inter-rater), validity (content and
construct), sensitvity to change
- Behavioural measures
Researches record results with their own eyes or via some technology + debriefng
o Strengths : reduces partcipant response bias, preserved on flm
o Limitatons : self selecton, reactvity, expensive, tme-consuming, difcult to conduct
Sex = sexual anatomy and sexual behaviour
Gender = state of being male or female
Sexual behaviour = produces arousal and increases chance of orgasm
History
- 100 years ago -> religion provided most informaton about sexuality
- Ancient Greeks -> homo- and heterosexuality, als je 2 mensen losknipt, gaan ze opzoek naar hun wederhelf
- 5th century Christans -> wet dreams, kleine wezentjes en hekserij
- Muslims -> sexual intercourse as one of the fnest pleasures in life
- Mannen en vrouwen waren hetzelfde geslacht alleen geslachtsdeel bij vrouw is naar binnen gericht
Vrouwen maken ook sperma, aangemaakt in de hersenen
Important researchers
- Sigmund Freud
Physician -> founder of psychiatry and psychoanalysis
- Henry Havelock Ellis
Physyican -> modern sex and masturbategedrag
Forerunner of modern sex research : women are also sexual creatures, sexual deviatons are harmless
- Richard von Kraf-Ebing
Psychiatrist -> psychopathia sexualis (sexual disorders based on patentss experience)
- Magnus Hirschfeld
Founder of sex insttute, frst large-scale sex survey, almost everything destroyed
Introduced transvestte / travestet
- Alfred Kinsey
Zoologist, entomologist, sexologist
Kinsey Reports (books about sexual behaviour) + Kinsey Scale (measuring sexual orientaton)
- Masters and Johnson
Observatonal sex research -> physiology of sexual response and sexual disorders
Sexology across tme
- Before 1900 -> religious and legal approach (good or bad)
- Around 1900 -> medical, psychiatric, psychological approach (healthy / normal or unhealthy / abnormal)
- 1973-2000 -> constructvism vs medicalizaton (interacton between 2 people)
Media
- Cultvaton = view that exposure makes people think that what they see represents the mainstream of what
really occurs (tv programmass)
- Agenda setng = idea that the media defne what is important and what is not by which stories they cover
(hoe meer in de media, hoe belangrijker)
- Social learning = idea that the media provide role models whom we imitate (rolmodellen immiteren)
Cross-cultural perspecives on sexuality
- Culture = traditonal (passed down from generaton to generaton) ideas and values transmited by symbols
to a group which infuence paterns or behaviour
- Ethnocentrism = tendency to regard oness own culture as superior, belief that its own customs are the
standard by which other cultures should be judged
- All societes regulate sexual behaviour somehow
o Incest taboos -> nearly universal
o Condemnaton of forced sexual relatons
- Societes respond diferently to
Sexual techniques (kissing), masturbaton, premarital sex, extramarital sex, sex with same-gender partner,
standards of atractveness
- Signifcance of cross-cultural studies
Variaton in human sexual behaviour, personal standards and behaviour in perspectve, evidence concerning
importance of culture and learning in shaping of sexual behaviour
,Cross-species perspectves on sexuality
- Masturbaton, same-gender behaviour, sexual signalling -> other species too
- Sexual behaviour is more instnctvely controlled among lower species and more controlled by the brain and
higher species
- Animals sometmes use sexual behaviour for nonsexual purposes
Sexual health perspectve
- Sexual health = state of physical, emotonal, mental, and social well-being in relaton to sexuality
- For sexual health to be atained and maintained, the sexual rights of all persons must be respected,
protected and fulflled
,HOORCOLLEGE 2
Evolutonary perspectve
- Sociobiology = applicaton of evolutonary biology to understand the social behaviour of animals (humans)
Evoluton = theory that all living things have acquited their present through gradual changes in their genetc
endowment over successive generaton
Natural selecton = process in nature resuling in greater rates of survival of those plants and animals that are
adapted to environment
Sexual selecton = specifc type of selecton that created diferences between males and females
- Evolutonary perspectve focuses on the psychological mechanisms shaped by natural selecton
Assumes that every characteristc we observe must have some adaptve signifcance
Men and women face diferent adaptve problems in matng -> theory diferent sexual strategies -> same
Psychological theories
- Psychoanalystc theory (Freud)
Human behaviour is driven by sex drive or sex energy (libido) and death (Thanatos)
Humans have a personality structure -> id (pleasure), ego (reality), superego (idealism, conscious)
o Stages of psychosexual development
Oral (tll 1 year) Stmulatng lips and mouth
Anal (2 year) Controlling bladder and bowel movement
Phallic (3-6 year) Interest in genitals
Oedipus complex = sexual atracton of a boy to his mother
Latency (6 year – adolescence) Impulses are repressed or in quiescent state
Gental Urges reawaken and become more specifcally genital, other
phases fuse together to promote reproducton
o People do not mature from one stage to the next -> traces of earlier stages remaining in personality
Most of its concept cannot be evaluated scientfcally -> data from disturbed patents of Freud
Overemphasis on biological determinants of behaviour and male-centred
- Learning theories
Grew out of behaviourism movement, observable behaviour
Sexual behaviour represent learned associatons and new associatons can be learned
o Theories
Classical conditoning (Pavlov) : seksuele aantrekkingen en woorden conditoneren
Operante conditoning (Skinner) : reinforced behavior increase, punished behavior decrease
Geslachtsziekte -> geen condoom -> beloning en straf te ver uit elkaar -> geen associate
Social learning (Bandura) : immitatng behaviors that we observe in others
- Exchange theories
Exchange theory = based on principle of reinforcement, assumes that people will choose actons that
maximize rewards and minimize costs
o Principles of Social Exchange Theory
Comparing profts of relatonship provides over alternatve relatonships
Believing rewards are proportonate to costs in a relatonship
Men and women choosing mates who match them on physical and social characteristcs
- Cognitve theory
Cognitve theory = study of the way people perceive and think (what we think, infuences what we feel)
Same situaton -> diferent percepton -> some perceptons are handy and some are not
Psychologists -> ratonalizing peopless thoughts
o Gender Schema Theory
Gender schema = set of atributes that we associate with males and females
Schemas predispose us to process informaton on basis of gender
Schemas flter out stereotype-inconsistent informaton, making them slow to change
o Personality theories
Personality theory = theorizes that relatvely stable individual diferences drive behaviour
Big Five (extraversion, agreeableness, openness)
Erotophilia (positef tegenover seks) en erotophobia (negatef tegenover seks)
Sensaton seeking (tendency to pursue thrilling and risky actvites -> no condom)
, Sociosexuality (willingness to have sex without commitment or emotonal connecton)
Critcal theories
- Feminist theory
o Gender is a dimension of inequality, womenss sexuality has been repressed and depressed but rarely
expressed, gender roles restrict people
o Intersectonality = approach that says that we should simultaneously consider a personss multple
group membership and identtes
- Queer theory
o Heteronormatvity = belief that heterosexuality is only patern of sexuality that is normal and natural
Sociological perspectves
- Assumptons
o Every society regulates the sexuality of its members
o Basis insttutons afect the rules governing sexuality
o Appropriateness of a partcular sexual behaviour depends on the culture in which it occurs
- Symbolic Interacton Theory
Human nature and social order are products of symbolic communicaton among people (kopje kofe)
- Script theory
Sexual behaviour is a result of elaborate prior learning that teaches us an etquete of sexual behaviour
- Sexual felds
Sexual feld = site populated with people with erotc dispositons that they project on space and each other
The resultng interacton refects each otherss desires, mediated by the acceptable modes of interacton
- Insttutons
Sexuality is infuenced by powerful social insttutons -> religion, economy, family, medicine, law
Biopsychosocial perspectve
Each theory has its own limitatons -> biopsychosocial perspectve
Takes a holistc approach to the study of sex consider the entre person and the mind and body are interconnected
Types of sampling
Sample selecton = identfy target populaton and draw a smaller group you will actually study
- Random selecton = everyone in target populaton has an equal chance of being included in the sample
- Probability sampling = everybody of the populaton has a known probability of being included in the sample
- Snowball sampling (response driven) = partcipants suggest names of future partcipants to be recruited
- Convenience sampling = sample chosen in a haphazard manner (most common)
Non-experimental studies
Observatons are made, variables are not directly manipulated or changed
- Survey (self-report)
Partcipants report on own sexual attudes and behaviours
o Kinsey Reports -> rare manier van vragen (wanneer voorgekomen ipv of het is voorgekomen)
o Natonal Health and Social Life Survey -> more conservatve than Kinsey
o Natonal Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior -> largest and most diverse survey
o CASI -> ofers privacy of writen questons while accommodatng poor readers
Strengths : quick and easy for collectng data, multple methods of administraton
Limitatons : problem of refusal or nonresponse, self-selecton or volunteer bias, socially desirable answers,
purposeful distorton (enlargement and concealment), memory, difcultes with estmates
Good sex survery : atenton to use of language, appropriate for audience, avoid leading and loaded
questons, atenton to potental queston order efects
Before use in practce : reliability (internal consistency, test-retest, inter-rater), validity (content and
construct), sensitvity to change
- Behavioural measures
Researches record results with their own eyes or via some technology + debriefng
o Strengths : reduces partcipant response bias, preserved on flm
o Limitatons : self selecton, reactvity, expensive, tme-consuming, difcult to conduct
