Edexcel IGCSE Geography - Urban Environments [Detailed and Accurate]
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The Edexcel IGCSE Geography notes were compiled in line with the specification, consulting textbooks, websites, and studies. These notes take the form of notes, diagrams and summaries.
These notes were used by numerous students, all of whom achieved Grade 8s and 9s at GCSE for Geography. The n...
N.B. These notes should not be misconstrued to be entirely what will be tested, however they have been
compiled in line with the Specification, using resources recognised by the Examination Board.
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,Table of Contents – Urban Environments
6.1 A growing percentage of the world’s population lives in urban areas
a) Contrasting trends in urbanisation over the last 50 years in different parts of the world, including
the processes of suburbanisation and counter-urbanisation
b) Factors affecting the rate of urbanisation and the emergence of megacities
c) Problems associated with rapid urbanisation: congestion, transport, employment, crime, and
environmental issues
6.2 Cities face a range of social and environmental challenges resulting from rapid growth and resource
demands
a) Factors affecting urban land use patterns: locational needs, accessibility, land values
b) Urban challenges in a named developed country: food, energy, transport and waste disposal
demands, concentrated resource consumption, segregation
c) Urban challenges in a named developing country or emerging country: squatter settlements,
informal economy, urban pollution and low quality of life
6.3 Different strategies can be used to manage social, economic and environmental challenges in a
sustainable manner
a) Development of the rural-urban fringe: housing estates, retail, business and science parks,
industrial estates, and the greenfield versus brownfield debate
b) The range of possible strategies aimed at making urban living more sustainable and improving the
quality of life (waste disposal, transport, education, health, employment and housing) for a chosen
urban environment
c) Role of different groups of people (planners, politicians, property developers and industrialists) in
managing the social, economic and environmental challenges in the chosen urban area
Specification
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,6.1(a) -Contrasting trends in urbanisation over the last 50 years in different
parts of the world, including the processes of suburbanisation and counter-
urbanisation -
---
Trends in urbanisation –
Urbanisation
Definition
Urbanisation is the increasing percentage of a country’s population living in urban settlements, leading to
the growth of towns and cities.
Contrasting trends in urbanisation
The most rapid growth of urban areas has taken place in the last 50 years.
- In 1950, less than 1/3 of the world’s population lives in towns and cities.
- By 2030, around 2/3 of the world’s population is expected to live in towns and cities.
Urbanisation is mainly taking place in low-income countries as medium-income countries and high-
income countries already have a large urban population.
- Urbanisation is mainly taking place in Asia, Africa and Latin America.
--
Suburbanisation
Definition
The outward growth of a town or cities, increasing the size of that built-up area.
Process of suburbanisation
Suburbanisation tends to occur in developed countries, rather than developing/emerging countries.
- An effect of suburbanisation is that more affluent and wealthy people move to the countryside,
where the house are more spacious and large.
- Another effect of suburbanisation is the development of transportation links to cover areas where
the population is expanding. The improvement and updating of areas is caused by gentrification.
Suburbanisation means that the inner city will see a social and economic decline.
- Due to the reduced cost of living in the inner city, immigrants, refugees, and poor people will
inhabit these older and more dense areas, which in turn leads to economic and ethnic segregation.
--
Counter-urbanisation
Definition
This is the relocation of people and economic activity from larger towns and cities to smaller settlements in
more rural areas beyond the suburbs.
Process of counter-urbanisation
This tends to take place in developed countries, as opposed to developing/emerging countries.
- An effect of counter-urbanisation is that the more affluent and wealthy people will move to rural
areas, where the houses are more spacious and larger.
- Another effect of counter-urbanisation is the development of transportation links to cover areas
where the population Is expanding.
3
, This process tends to take place when a significantly large proportion of the country is already living
in an urban area.
- Individuals will see living in the City as a burden, and so will migrate outwards into the countryside.
6.1(b) – Factors affecting the rate of urbanisation
---
Factors affecting the rate of urbanisation –
Migration of people from rural areas towards towns and cities are caused by a range of factors.
Pull factors drawing people towards towns and cities -
Travel/Commuting
It is easier to commute to work on a daily basis as places of employment are closer and accessible
through numerous means of transport.
Better public infastructure
Since there is a more dense population, governments put more money into public services, utilities,
land management, buildings and transport systems - which in turn attracts people to these
locations.
Better access to education
There are more primary schools, secondary schools, colleges, universities in urban areas due to a
greater density of students meaning there are extensive options for enrolment.
Better emergency service access
There are more emergency services on hand to respond in an expedient manner, allowing for life-
and-death situations to be resolved quicker.
More reliable sources of food
More shops and restaurants are located in the City meaning that there are more opportunities for
food to be sourced by individuals for consumption.
--
Migration of people from towns and cities towards rural areas are caused by a range of factors.
Push/Pull factors drawing people towards rural areas -
Lower population density
This is optimal for people who don't like noise or a public lifestyle.
More family friendly
Rural areas are more safe from crime and are more spacious for families to grow.
Less pollution
Since there is less pollution in rural areas, individuals with respiratory illnesses or those who would
like a minimal impact on health will move to these regions.
Deindustrialisation
Factories move to the countryside due to reduced production costs and taxes meaning maximum
profitisation. This sees workers follow the employment location for ease of transport.
Lack of greenery
Mental health issues are caused or increased by lack of greenery in towns and cities so people
move to greener areas as there is a relation between green spaces and better mental health.
Shifts in employment
Modernisation, as well as Covid-19, means that work has shifted online with minimal hours in the
workspace. This means people move to the suburbs/countryside for a better lifestyle.
Increased private car ownership
More people are purchasing vehicles meaning they are not restricted to public transport for travel.
--
Population growth as a result of natural increase (birth-death) is more rapid in towns and cities.
This causes the urban population to increase more rapidly than the rural population, so the urban
population % will rise.
Factors affecting natural increase of urban population
4
, Trends in rural-urban migration of the youth
In developed countries, young adults are more likely to move from rural areas to urban areas so
there is a higher youthful population meaning a lower death rate in urban populations.
Accessibility of emergency services
There are more emergency services/facilities/institutions located in the City due to a greater
population meaning less people will die to a lack of critical care.
Density of rural/urban population based on age
There will be more old people living in rural areas than urban areas as they wish to live a quiet
retirement, meaning that towns and cities will have reduced numbers of natural death.
Access to fresh food/nutritious food
Food that is nutritious and fit for consumption will more likely be found in urban areas as producers
wish to gain maximum profitisation, meaning that food poisoning/malnutrition is less likely in
Urban areas. This means that there will be less people dying from food poisoning (from eating food
that they forage) and malnutrition (due to reduced types of foods available) in urban areas than
rural areas.
6.1(b) – Causes of volcanic and earthquake hazards, including the role of
plate boundaries and hotspots
---
New York and Tokyo were the first megacities to emerge, reaching a record for urban conglomeration of
over 10 million people by 1950. According to a 2018 UN Report, there are 13 megacities to date.
---
Megacities
Definition
These are very large cities with a population extending beyond 10 million people.
Factors affecting the emergence of megacities
Economic growth/economies of scale
- When the economy grows in megacities, the employers are able to afford increasing the employee
wage. This applies to the economy of scale; as an item’s production scale increases, the cost of the
item decreases
- When production becomes efficient (through investment), cost advantages are reaped. This factor
leads to an increase in the growth of cities, leading to the increase of its population - which
subsequently leads to the emergence of megacities
--
Multiplier Effect
As cities begin/continue to prosper, their growth and prosperity progresses because there is an
increase in resources and wages available.
- The bigger cities produce more wealth, and so more people will move to benefit from this wealth.
The smaller number of large cities will grow quicker than the bigger number of small cities.
- Since there are more people, there are more jobs. Since there are more jobs, there is a greater
demand for people to carry out these jobs of selling goods and services. This means that more
people will move into the city. This cycle is known as the multiplier effect.
The draw of the city
Individuals are given the impression that in order to fulfil their aspiration to move into a certain
career path, they must move to a certain city.
- This is often due to the fact prestigious and recognised universities are located in larger cities.
- International organisations like global law firms, technology firms, IT institutions are located in
megacities, meaning people will go to these cities with the aspiration of seeking employment.
There is greater income available in certain cities.
5
, - The employment sectors of certain cities have greater income available, and so people will move to
these cities to have a greater accessibility to this wealth. This is the Bright Light Syndrome.
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.1(c) – Problems associated with rapid urbanisation
---
Rapid Urbanisation
Definition
The rapid increase in percentage of a country's population living in urban settlements leading to a rapid
growth in cities and towns, often at a greater rate than the existent infastructure can handle.
--
Problems associated with rapid urbanisation:
Congestion -
Wasted time for motorists and passengers causing economic damages
There is non-productivity by workers, leading to opportunity costs of workers being stuck in traffic,
including missed meetings and billable hours, which can cause lost business contracts and wages.
Environment can be impacted by congestion
Idling vehicles can increase CO2 emissions and pollution as vehicles will operate till they reach a set
location and idling traffic increases time taken to do such.
Social impacts
Emergency services take longer to respond to critical incidents, causing death or permanent injury.
Individuals take longer to travel for meetings, meaning less time is spent together.
--
Transport -
Road crime and safety
Provisions regarding traffic laws and road safety cannot be adapted to be appropriate for greater
density of traffic in an expeditious manner, meaning road users can be at risk due to drivers.
Public transport systems over-burdened
Transit institutions will not be able to provide changes to means of transport to satisfy the growing
population in a short period of time, meaning trains, trams and buses will be packed.
--
Employment -
Less job opportunities
Evaluating the benefits and necessity for an increased workforce in institutions takes time, meaning
more unemployed people will be competing for a decreasing number of jobs.
Reduced wages
Employers can abuse the unemployment crisis to offer low-wage jobs for maximum profitisation.
Job sector cannot adapt to satisfy the production and sale of goods/services to the increasing
population; supply cannot reach demand quickly so low-wage jobs will be created to cut the gap.
--
Crime -
Too much stress on government programs
Housing programmes/benefits programmes will be overburdened as the existent support
structures cannot be amended to meet the need by the increase in population, meaning people will
resort to crime.
Increase in criminal activity
Organised crime groups will be located in poor parts of the cities due to greater densities of
population and reduced chance of getting caught
Murder, rape, and theft are common criminal offences that increase due to greater populations
--
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