Research Methods and Statistics
Exam 1 information:
Morling
Chapter 1, chapter 2 and chapter 5
Agresti
Chapter 1 (except paragraph 1.3), chapter 2, chapter 3 (except paragraph 3.3 and 3.4),
and chapter 5
Chapter 1 - Introduction to Scientific Reasoning (Morling)
Empiricism involves using evidence from the senses or from instruments that assist as
the basis for conclusions.
Scientist Test Theories: The Theory-Data cycle
In the theory-data cycle, scientists collect data to test, change or update their theories.
It involves taking systematic steps to solve a problem.
Figure 1.1 Theory-Data cycle
,The Cupboard Theory vs The Contact Comfort Theory
The cupboard theory of mother-infant attachment, is that a mother is valuable to a
baby mammal, because she is a source of food. Over time, the sight of the mother is
associated with pleasure. However, Harry Harlow (1958) proposed a different theory. He
claims that babies are attached to their mothers, because of the comfort of cozy touch. This is
the contact comfort theory. To test his theory, Harlow set up two conditions for baby
monkeys. He made them choose between two “mothers”, one of which had a built in bottle of
milk, while the other had a light that provided warmth. The baby monkeys choose comfort
over food.
Types of Research
Applied research is done with a practical problem in mind. Basic research is used to
enhance the general body of knowledge. Transactional research is the use of lessons from
basic research to develop and test applications in health care, psychotherapy or other forms of
treatment and intervention. Transactional research is seen as the bridge between basic
research to applied research.
Basic What parts of the brain are active when experienced meditators are
meditating?
Translational In a laboratory study, can meditation lessons improve college students’
scores?
Applied Has our school’s new meditation program helped students focus longer on
their math lessons?
, Chapter 2 - Sources of Information: Why Research is Best and how to find it (Morling)
The Empirical Cycle
The Theory-Data cycle is considered to be incomplete, hence why most researchers use the
Empirical Cycle instead. The Empirical Cycle is constructed by Adriaan de Groot.
Figure 2.1 Empirical Cycle
Every research starts with observation. This could happen because of previous research, but
also through ‘everyday methods’, such as experience, intuition or authority.
Why Experience is not the most reliable source
Experience has no comparison group. A comparison group enables researchers to
compare what would happen with or without the manipulation in an experiment.
Experience is confounded. Confounds are alternative explanations for behavior or an
outcome.
Why Intuition is not the most reliable source
Intuition is biased. People often believe something, because it makes sense or feels
natural, this is called the good story bias. Another bias is the availability heuristic. The
availability heuristic states that things that pop up easily in thoughts tend to guide our
thinking. A recent event could lead to believing that event happens often, even though it is
very seldom for that event to even occur. People also tend to only look at information that
agrees with what they already believe, this is called the confirmation bias. We often fail to
look for absences, when in contrast it’s easy to notice what is present. This tendency, referred
to as the present/present bias, is a name for our failure to consider appropriate comparison
groups. However, we often consider ourselves unlikely to fall prey to the other biases
previously described, this is called the bias blind spot.
Why Authority is not the most Reliable Source
People tend to accept information, because an authority said so. In commercials they
primarily use random actors in white lab coats to make you believe that this toothpaste will
