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chapter 4 consciousness samenvatting toelating psychologie RuG
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Chapter 4 consciousnessbig questions
- What is consciousness?
- What is altered consciousness?
- What is sleep?
- How do brain injury and drugs affect consciousness?
What is consciousness?
Consciousness consists of one’s moment-by-moment personal, subjective
experiences. You know that you have consciousness because you are
experiencing the outside world through your senses and because you
know you are thinking. Conscious experiences exist, but their subjective
nature makes them difficult to study empirically. Consciousness involves
not just your sensation and thoughts but also your memories and anything
else you are experiencing in the moment. Your mind and body do many
things you are not consciously aware of.
4.1 Consciousness is limited.
Most of the time, conscious experience is unified and coherent. In other
words, in your subjective experiences, the world makes sense, and one
thought or perception flows from another. Consciousness is often
described as a continuous stream, and thoughts float on that stream.
However, there is a limit to how many things the mind can me conscious
of at the same time. You cannot pay attention to reading while doing
several other things, such as watching television or talking to a friend. You
are able to fully process only a limited amount of the information available
to you at any given time.
Change blindness.
The limited nature of consciousness means that we often miss things,
even big things, because we are focusing on something else. Consider the
phenomenon known as change blindness. Because we cannot attend to
everything in the vast array of visual information available, we are often
“blind” to large changes in our environments. As change blindness
illustrates, we can consciously perceive only a limited amount of
information. Large discrepancies exist between what most of us believe we
can see and what we actually see. Thus, our perceptions of the world are
often inaccurate, and we have little conscious awareness of our perceptual
failures.
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,4.2 Attention is the gateway to conscious awareness.
Attention involves being able to focus selectively on some things and not
others. Although they are not the same thing, attention and consciousness
often go hand in hand. Attention selects what enters your limited
consciousness. You can focus on a single conversation in the midst of a
chaotic party. However, a particularly pertinent stimulus-such as hearing
your name of a juicy piece of gossip mentioned in another conversation-
can capture your attentions. Because your attention is now divided, you
can understand less about the new stimulus that you would if you gave it
your full attention.
Cherry developed selective-listening studies to examine what the mind
does with unattended information when a person pays attention to one
task. He used a technique called shadowing. In this procedure, the
participant wears headphones that deliver one message to one ear and a
different message to the other. The participant is asked to attend to one of
the two messages and “shadow” it by repeating it aloud. As a result, the
participant usually notices the unattended sound (the message given in
the other ear) but will have little knowledge about the content of the
unattended sound.
In 1958, the psychologist Donald Broadbent developed filter theory to
explain the selective nature of attention. He assumed that people have a
limited capacity for sensory information. They screen incoming information
to let in only the mist important material.
Endogenous versus exogenous attention
Sometimes you decide what to attend to. For example, you have decided
to attend to what you are reading right now. Intentionally directing the
focus of your attention in this way is called endogenous attention.
However, some stimuli demand attention and virtually shut off the ability
to attend to anything else. When the focus of your attention is driven by a
stimulus of event, it is called exogenous attention.
Attention as a window to consciousness in the brain.
the impact of attention on how the brain processes stimuli happens early
in the perceptual process. the brain does respond to some unattended
stimuli, suggesting they are perceived at some level, but attending to and
becoming consciously aware of a stimulus enhances and expands the
brain’s response to that stimulus.
4.3 Laptops in the classroom.
It can be hard to pay complete attention for an entire class period, even
with the mist engaging lectures. For this reason, many of your instructors
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, try to engage students in active participation during class. The rise of
laptops and smartphones in the classroom over the past decade has made
it even more difficult for instructors to hold students’ attention. Students
often do not feel like they are missing anything when they multitask. The
irony is that it takes attention to know what you are missing. If your
attention Is elsewhere and you miss something vital mentioned by your
instructor, you might not even know that you missed anything. You might
have the illusion that you were paying attention because you have no
awareness of events that happened when your attention was otherwise
occupied.
4.4 Unconscious processing can influence behavior.
Just because people fail to attend to consciously perceive something in
their environment does not mean that they are unaffected by it. Sir Francis
Galton first proposed that mental activity below the level of consciousness
awareness can influence behavior. The influence of unconscious thoughts
was also at the center of Freud’s theories of human behavior. For example,
the classis mistake called a Freudian slip occurs when an unconscious
thought is suddenly expressed at an inappropriate time or in an
inappropriate social context.
Studies of selective listening show that unattended information is
processed at least to some extent. These studies found that even when
participants could not repeat an unattended message, they still had
processed its contents. The process of irrelevant details of attended stimuli
can also unconsciously influence behavior.
Priming
Priming occurs when the response to a stimulus is influenced or facilitated
by recent experience with the stimulus or a related stimulus. Priming can
influence how you perceive an object, the speed or erase with which you
respond, and the choices you make.
Subliminal perception
Priming can also occur when people are unaware of the stimulus that
influences behavior. Subliminal perception occurs when stimuli are
processed by sensory systems but, because of their short durations or
subtlety, do not reach consciousness. During the 1980’s, programs using
subliminal messages for self-improvements were developed and promoted.
For example, hearing subliminal messages while sleeping was supposed to
make you more confident of improve your memory.
Even if material presented subliminally has little to no effect on complex
actions, such as buying something you did not intend to buy, there is
evidence that it can subtly influence behavior. Subliminal cues may be
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