Voorbereidingen Dinsdag 04-09
Reader
Introduction
Intervening in a messy problem is a complex process that can be understood at different
levels: the step-by-step procedure to be followed, the activities in each step, supported by a
particular tool. These three levels rest on a foundation of theoretical assumptions, a view of
the world that drives the more practical side of an approach.
Chapter 1 [READER]: the nature of messy problems
‘’“Managers are not confronted with separate problems but with situations that consist of
complex systems of strongly interacting problems. I call such situations messes.”
A basic definition of a problem is a discrepancy between the perceived and desired situation
or development.
Therefore those wishing to change a messy situation do not only need to take into account
its systemic and uncertain properties, but also who are the stakeholders in the situation, their
different perspectives and interests, as well as their power to block, support or modify any
proposal for changing the situation.
So how can we maximize the chance of successfully tackling messy situations? Two
approaches seem possible: individual (e.g. a manager or leader sets out a course of action),
or group (e.g. stakeholders get together to produce a joint response).
Individual
Both framing and anchoring and adjustment are examples of heuristics, or rules of thumb,
that individuals use to make sense of situations (Carter, Kaufmann, & Michel, 2007; Hogarth,
1987). The purpose of heuristics is to reduce the effort of processing information when
solving problems or making decisions.
System 1
System 2
Group
The expected benefit of bringing people from different organizations together is that the
differences in group members’ views, interests and knowledge about the problem would
become a valuable asset, enabling them to develop a shared understanding of the problem
before they reach agreement on how to act. In this way, a group is able to make progress
which could have not been possible by any group member working alone.
Chapter 2 [READER]: intervening messy problems
Decision making tactics relying on increased participation are more effective than indicidual
approaches.
,Procedures to improve processes of any kind are referred to as interventions. The term
intervention may therefore mean very different things. Intervention is among others used to
describe individual and group therapy (Snijders, 2006), disaster or emergency aid (a
humanitarian intervention), the interference of one nation in the affairs of another,
organisational development, and medical as well as technological procedures. In this book,
we reserve the term ‘intervention’ for designed activities carried out with groups, in order to
help achieve certain organisational outcomes.
4 groups of methods
- list based methods
- systems based methods
- narrative based methods
- decision based methods
Chapter 3 [READER]: intervention context
Intake
The first phase of an intervention is making an inventory of problem symptoms so that the
advisor comes to an initial understanding of the scope of the problem. This is the basis for
the project proposal, the sponsor’s commitment of resources and participants’ willingness to
spend time on the project
The intake has four important goals: clarify the issue to be addressed in the project, manage
client expectations, agree on roles and responsibilities of both the consultant/ analyst and
the client(s) and agree on a design and deliverables of the project.
The first issue might be difficult as you are trying to figure out the ‘problem behind the
problem’.
> part of managing expectations is being clear on roles and responsibilities and come to an
agreement on a design for the intervention, as detailed as is possible in this early stage.
Each person that is involved has unspoken or explicit expectations of the behaviours of
others. In particular in messy situations, it pays to be clear on what the advisor sees as his
or her role, what input is required from the client and what both parties envision the results of
the project should be.
Client roles
There are three kind of client roles:
- Contact client
- Participants in the session
- The sponsor
The contact client is the person who seeks contact with an advisor. The first contact is
often based on the contact clients’ personal understanding of what is going on in his
organisation and how the advisor may be able to help.
, After some research the advisor will come up with an preliminary problem definition, this is
important for clarifying the aims of the project to the client as well as to the consultant and is
a basis for inviting participants to project meetings. Phrasing the problem to be addressed
in the right way is very important in order to motivate a group of people beyond the contact
client to spend time on the project. As a general guideline, the aim is to have everyone
participate in the meetings who has relevant knowledge (experts and persons with local
knowledge) or has a role in implementing conclusions (stakeholders and decision makers).
Most people work in accountability hierarchies. Therefor it is needed to motivate the project
to the sponsor. The sponsor needs to be convinced of the urgency of the problem and the
relevance of the proposal method before she will make funds and time of organisation
members available.
Advisor roles in the intake
Expert Doctor Process consultant
Assumptions Client knows what the client has correctly identified client doesn’t know exactly what
problem is the sick area the problem is
Has communicated the real patient will reveal information client doesn’t know what types
problem necessary for a good of help are available or relevant
diagnosis
the helper has the doctor has expertise needed clients may benefit from helping
information needed in diagnosing
client knows consequences client will accept diagnosis only client knows which
of asking question and interventions will work
receiving answer
client will do what doctor client has constructive intent
recommends
Expertise Content Knowledge Diagnoses Methodology
Extra: the researcher collects and analyses information in a neutral and objective fashion
and reports the results and implications. His report offers new knowledge on the problem at
hand and points to solutions, but supporting implementation of solutions is not part of his
role. In essence, in this role he assumes that ‘the facts speak for themselves’.
Chapter 4 [READER]: Intervention process
4.1 Advisor roles in the intervention process
in response to a major problem, a top manager is tempted to analyse the problem on his
own and communicate his ideas to the rest of the organisation in the form of an edict.
The edict: specifies what the problem is and what is to be done about t, so the expectation is
that no time is wasted in solving the problem.
>often generates resistance from stakeholders and delay the process of implementation,
that is, if anything is implemented at all.
, Persuasion: people need to be motivated and able to process information, otherwise a
message will be ignored.
Expert consultation: effective if (1) the client knows exactly what the problem is and has
communicated this to his consultant, (2) the consultant has all the information needed to
formulate a solution, (3) the client knows the consequences of asking for help and getting an
answer.
Doctor-patient model: different from the expert model, the client does not know exactly
what the problem is. She will however identify the area that is in need of improvement and
reveal all relevant information. The helper is able to diagnose the situation and prescribe a
‘cure’. It is then upon the client to accept and fully implement the doctor’s recommendations.
Process consultation: the expectation is that the client will benefit from helping to diagnose
the situation, in particular because his own beliefs and actions are usually part of the
problem. The client is unlikely to accept an outsider’s view of the situation. Instead he needs
to gradually build up his own understanding of how his behaviour influences the situation
and vice versa.
→ the expert consultant ofers content knowledge, and the doctor ofers skills
and expertise in linking the problem symptoms, underlying causes, and cures.
The added value of the process consultant consists of methods to analyse the
situation with the client. If problems are truly messy, nobody know exactly which
knowledge is relevant to analyse and solve it.
4.2 Facilitation
On a generic level, what task oriented groups have in common is that they try to achieve
shared understanding, a sense of common purpose and a mutual commitment to action.
You can focus on tasks but you can also focus at interpersonal content (who is saying what
to whom, are there participants trying to dominate).
The process concerns how things are done rather than what is done. So instead of focussing
on what is said, you look at whether people listen to one another, etc.
> a process consultant tries to help the group achieving its goals by attending to process
events, so that the group can more effectively deal with content.
Facilitator: a person who helps a group in working on its task, by focusing on process but
not on content.
The behaviour of the facilitator needs to be founded on a set of attitudes:
1. Helping
the job for a task oriented group is to develop a shared understanding, a sense of
common purpose and mutual commitment to action.
2. Neutrality
Three reasons:
a. you can not be sure that your opinion is right
