Samenvatting
Summary Case 1 What is aggression
- Instelling
- Maastricht University (UM)
Samenvatting van alle literatuur van taak 1 What is aggression van de elective agressie. ook bruikbaar voor de Advanced minor in Psychology
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Voorbeeld 2 van de 12 pagina's
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Case 1 what is agression?1. What is the definition of aggression?
- Human aggression is any behavior directed toward another individual that is carried
out with the proximate (immediate) intent to cause harm. In addition, the perpetrator
must believe that the behavior will harm the target, and that the target is motivated to
avoid the behaviour
- Violence is aggression that has extreme harm as its goal (e.g., death). All violence is
aggression, but many instances of aggression are not violent
- Cognitive neoassociation theory: aversive events produce negative affect. Negative
affect produced by unpleasant experiences automatically stimulates various thoughts,
memories, expressive motor reactions, and physiological responses associated with
both fight and flight tendencies. The fight associations give rise to rudimentary
feelings of anger, whereas the flight associations give rise to rudimentary feelings of
fear. Furthermore, cognitive neoassociation theory assumes that cues present during an
aversive event become associated with the event and with the cognitive and emotional
responses triggered by the event. When a concept is primed or activated, this
activation spreads to related concepts and increases their activation as well. This
model is particularly suited to explain hostile aggression, but the same priming and
spreading activation processes are also relevant to other types of aggression
- Social learning theory: , people acquire aggressive responses the same way they
acquire other complex forms of social behavior—either by direct experience or by
observing others
- Script theory: when children observe violence in the mass media, they learn aggressive
scripts. Scripts define situations and guide behaviour The person first selects a script
to represent the situation and then assumes a role in the script. Once a script has been
learned, it may be retrieved at some later time and used as a guide for behavior. This
approach can be seen as a more specific and detailed account of social learning
processes. Multiple rehearsals create additional links to other concepts in memory,
thus increasing the number of paths by which it can be activated. Multiple rehearsals
also increase the strength of the links themselves
- Excitation transfer theory: physiological arousal dissipates slowly. If two arousing
events are separated by a short amount of time, arousal from the first event may be
misattributed to the second event. If the second event is related to anger, then the
additional arousal should make the person even angrier. The notion of excitation
transfer also suggests that anger may be extended over long periods of time if a person
has consciously attributed his or her heightened arousal to anger
- Social interaction theory: ) interprets aggressive behaviour (or coercive actions) as
social influence behavior. Coercive actions can be used by an actor to obtain
something of value (e.g., information, money, goods, sex, services, safety), to exact
retributive justice for perceived wrongs, or to bring about desired social and self-
identities (e.g., toughness, competence). According to this theory, the actor is a
decision-maker whose choices are directed by the expected rewards, costs, and
probabilities of obtaining different outcomes. Social interaction theory provides an
explanation of aggressive acts motivated by higher level (or ultimate) goals.
2. What factors can lead to aggression (evolutionary, cultural, gender)?
Gender
- Men generally use aggression more than females, when direct forms of aggression
(e.g., physical or verbal) are considered. Conversely, females generally use aggression
more often than males, when indirect forms of aggression are considered (e.g.,
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, psychological, social). However, both sexes use both direct and indirect forms of
aggression.
- Sex differences in acts of aggression are often a matter of degree. But for some
specific types of aggression, sex differences are dramatic
- The term physical aggression (PA) is used in this paper to refer to physical acts that
are directed at another person and that may cause bodily harm. We use the term
indirect aggression (IA) to refer to social manipulations (such as spreading rumours,
excluding peers, betraying trust or divulging secrets) that are circuitous in nature and
that can be socially harmful. It may be noted that our use of the term IA is
synonymous with both the term social aggression and the term relational aggression
- Sex Differences in the Development of Physical Aggression: girls and boys exhibit
similar levels of aggression during toddlerhood and that the rate of externalising
behaviours starts to diverge around 4–5 years of age. But recent studies also provide
evidence that boys are already more physically aggressive than girls during their
preschool years. there appears to be a gradual emergence of sex differences in PA
during preschool years. However, sex differentiation appears to begin earlier than
what was originally proposed: i.e., during infancy (12 months) as opposed to near the
end of preschool years. most children were also found to exhibit low-to-moderate
levels of PA, with declining trajectories between toddlerhood and middle childhood.
Similarly, study results showed that a proportion of children exhibiting higher levels
of PA during toddlerhood maintained relatively high trajectories throughout
childhood. Comparisons between boys and girls indicated that boys were 1.67 times
more likely to follow a high and stable PA trajectory. Thus, between 2 and 11 years of
age, boys tended to be more physically aggressive than girls. Similar sex differences
were found among the participants in the NICHD-ECCRN 2004 study. More
specifically, boys were more likely to follow a moderate or a high PA trajectory,
when compared with the (two) lowest trajectories. Together, these results suggest that
the PA sex gap is already substantial in toddlerhood, since girls are more likely to
follow low, desisting PA trajectories and boys are more likely to follow high, stable
PA trajectories. the sex gap continues to widen at puberty, increasing from 0.26 during
middle childhood to 0.35 at 11–13 years and 0.37 at 14–17 years. The widest gap
during the life course is observed in adulthood, between the ages of 18 and 30 years of
age. These are peak years for the development of a constellation of characteristics
which enable young men to successfully compete with other males. Studies of violent
crime and of homicides show that there is a distinct peak in males between 20 and 29
years of age. After these peak years for physical violence, the sex gap decreases to
0.25 between 30 and 55boys and girls differ little in their use of. Even before 2 years
of age there is a difference between boys and girls. most children (65%) rarely used
indirect aggression from ages 4 to 10 years, while others (35%) used indirect
aggression with increasing frequency during this period of development. The latter
group is mostly comprised of girls (57.5%).
- Boys and girls differ little in physical aggression during infancy, although boys exhibit
slightly more physical aggression than do girls as early as the first year of life. The PA
sex gap widens over the life-course, reaching a peak in adulthood between ages 18 and
30, when males use PA more frequently than do females. This increasing gap between
males and females is attributable to the fact that adult females are generally more
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