GENERAL SOCIOLOGY
Art A social construct, product (tangible, visible or audible), communicate publicly
(through senses), experienced for enjoyment (pleasure/escape), expressive
form ( ctional), de ned by its context (physical and social). It is divided in ne
arts, popular/mass arts and folk arts
Culture Implicit -> a way of life (cultural sociology)
Explicit -> a form of artistic expression & communication (sociology of culture)
Sociology The scienti c study of social groups, whole societies and the human world as
such, understanding the subtle but complex and profound ways in which our
individual lives re ect the contexts of our social experience.
Sociological imagination: wide social context <-> personal perspective
—> the process of structuration for progress in society: actors use their
agency to make changes in society, constrained and enabled by social
structures
Emergence of sociology
French Revolution End of ancient regime and monarchy -> abolition of feudal system and class
1789, France society -> rationalisation of society through constitutional, political,
administrative and governance reforms -> new approach and organisation to
social life
Industrial Revolution • No small communities but industrial capitalism, with focus on capital
17th Britain accumulation and pro t (e ciency and productivity)
• Centralised system: ppl move form rural to urban areas
• Democratization: political revolutions vs traditional authority structures
Enlightenment • Rationality for progress > tradition
17-18th, EU • individualism (society changed -> di erent approach needed)
• Empiricism: understanding through observation
• Universalism: strong need to understand society -> universal laws
1. Theological stage • Spencer: evolution of society = evolution of biology (Darwin), meritocracy
2. Metaphysical stage (less power to authorities, social allocation through achievement >
3. Positivist stage —> ascription), functional di erentiation in order to society to work (self-
regulation, individualism)
• Comte: positivist science to nd social laws, functionalism, observation ->
comparison -> experimentation to understand and improve (↑cohesion) the
new society
Functionalism Durkheim - social cohesion
• Society is a complex set of interconnected • Objective study of single social facts - institutions
subsystems that work together to ensure the and rules of action which constrain or channel
stability of a system. Each part has a speci c human behaviour
function in relation to the total organism. • observing that too much change would lead to
• Focus on solidarity, social integration, consensus, anomie (lack of the usual social order).
homeostasis (conservative -> moral consensus/ • IR -> division of labour -> change of solidarity
order and stability) • Micro-level: internalisation of social rules through
• Sociology has to map & analyze social structures socialisation
and their roles to contribute to social order BUT • Macro-level: di erent sub-systems co-operate to
some institutions have di erent roles than ful l societal needs (interdependency)
planned -> Merton: manifest/latent functions, • Meso-level - Merton
social dysfunctions • Parsons’ agil model: society is kept together by
—> Arts: role/function of art in society/socialization, acceptance of di erent positions and roles
distinguishable functions within the art world
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, Con ict theory Marx - social inequality
• Society is made of inequalities and di erences bc • Society: capitalists vs proletariat -> driving force
of uneven distribution and possession of capital, of history (?social revolution -> communism)
means of production and power • Base -> shapes the superstructure, protect pro ts
• Social order only through suppression through exploitation
• ↑ inequalities -> con icts -> social changes • Superstructure -> maintains & legitimises the
—> Arts: artists are poor, taste - social positions base, but eventually develop a class conscience
• IR -> growing inequality + exploitation of
proletariat by capitalists that own the means of
production
• Frankfurter Schule: Neo-marxism but more
focused on ideological dominance ⥾ cultural
impact
Interactionism/social action Weber - rationalisation
• Society = everyday interpersonal symbolic • IR -> industrial society -> disenchantment of the
interactions (transmitted thanks to shared world (rationalisation), focus on progress
meaning, micro-level) -> creation/maintenance of • industrial capitalism from ideas/religion >
society and institutions meritocracy and action —> xed future, work as a
• Di erences between societies = di erent way of calling —> material success
interpreting and experience reality • superstructure (ideas) can a ect the base, leading
—> Arts: meaning, shaping of society, expression to social change
Phenomenology: understand the world as it is • Symbolic interactionism: micro-level interactions
perceived by its actors, classi cation of daily life and meaning-making through use of language
experiences and people and symbols
Ethnomethodology: people not passive, how they • Mead: I, spontaneous vs Me, socially conditioned
create their own world (linguistic studies to explain • Micro-approach but applicable to macro-level
how natives interact)
Sociology history is about male concerns, focused on class di erences, gender, ethnicity, sexual identity,
issue which should be considered by looking at intersectionality -> combination of aspects of one’s life
and their e ects on the future
Feminist sociology Men were too focused don the public sphere, and not in the private one of
women. What is gender? Knw is gendered -> di erent experiences of life
Structuralism Existence of xed social structures, expressed in binaries (study of language,
to create meaning), underlying social reality
Post-structuralism The structures are not that xed, there are power relations that argue how
meanings changed historically (how do we give meaning to language?)
Post-modernism Vs modernist ideas about metanarratives, social change is messy and there
are dark sides, critical sociology, more negative -> disillusionment
Decolonizing sociology Study from Eurocentric perspective, not considering colonised countries
Criticism
Structure vs agency: • Elias: society is a long term social process made of ppl that only exist in
Society as an external groups ( guration) dependent one another -> no structure/agency dichotomy
system the a ects us • Giddens: structuration -> ppl make and remake social structures without
BUT humans created it ? even realising it, is a continuous process that only exist if actors are active
Consensus vs con ict • Functionalism - consensus vs con ict theory - inequality
• Dominant ideology bc acceptance of powerless, if not -> violence
Social change • Marx, conditions of production vs Weber, ideas
Transformation • Social re exivity: many choices but not a single clear direction, changes
occur bc of a continuous re-evaluation (post-traditional societies)
• Risk society: risks are man-made, attempts to control them require changes
at global levels -> cosmopolitanism (vs traditions -> nation state = macro)
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, Development of society through time
Hunters & gatherers Nomadic small groups who practice agriculture with primitives tools -> no
Since 50,000 BC di erentiation of tasks -> little social inequality, family centred
Pastoral/Horticultural Little complex technology (hand tools, domestication of animals) -> crops for
12,000 to 3,000 BC secure food supply -> temporary settlements -> task and functional
di erentiation (social inequality)
Agrarian society Bigger society and rst cities -> complex and organised technology ->
12,000 BC - today di erent tasks -> more inequality
Traditional civilisations Big societies -> ruled by emperor -> high social inequality (slavery)
6,000 BC - today
Industrial revolution New technology -> industrialisation -> transportation and communication ->
mid18th century - today integrations -> nation states (political communities with clear borders and a
large say over their inhabitants ) -> global power (political cohesion, economic
strength and military superiority) -> developed countries > developing
countries
Colonialism Industrialised countries exploit global South and try to rule them by installing
Western political systems -> new nation states but ruled by an alien
and unfamiliar systems -> suuuuper high inequality (globally)
Interrelated elements Economic development: Socio/cultural develop: Political organization:
that a ect society since Capitalism is expanding Forms of authority works Politicians are more
the industrial revolution production and in di erent ways, change e ective in nation states
promoting innovation, of conception of history than in earlier models of
aiming to wealth -> new means and goals society and authority
Globalisation - since the industrial revolution, there is a greater interdependence across the globe ( ows
of goods, ppl and info)
-> E. Wallerstein: core, semi-periphery and periphery countries relates in a Marxist con ict perspective
• Information technology: global communication, not equally divided, threat to ppl’s identity
• Economic motives: drive globalisation through transnational corporations
• Cultural motives: determine how/why economic integrations exists
• Political integration: cooperation and alignment towards global politics
Perspectives on • Hyperglobalizers: nation starts loose power due to world trade and global
globalisation phenomena (post-societal agenda?)
• Sceptics: no new level, nation states are the main agents (high levels of
interdependence) -> regionalisation
• Transformationalists: two ways process, change in power, alternative ways
beyond nation states
Glocalization • There are problems beyond countries’ boarders -> global governance? Loss
of identity, autonomy -> nationalism
• —> Glocalization: local communities does not completely absorb global
in uence, traits and habits, but often adapting and shaping them into their
own culture BUT return to geographical roots? Alienation ?
• Microlevel-> traditions are not leading guides anymore, more choice of tools
to shape your own life -> re exivity
Work & employment
Work Carrying out of tasks requiring the expenditure of mental and physical e ort,
with the aim of achieving the production of goods for human needs.
Characteristics: money, skills, variety, time/structure, social contacts, identity
Occupation Work done in exchange for a regular wage/salary
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