BABBIE, E. THE PRACTICE OF SOCIAL RESEARCH, 14th edition
Week 47 - Tuesday
CHAPTER 1: SCIENCE AND SOCIAL RESEARCH
1.1 Looking for Reality
1.1.1 Knowledge from agreement reality
A scientic assertin must havne bith ligical and empirical suppirt: it must makee sense, and it must nit
cintradict actual ibservnatinn
Epistemology is the science if keniwing (systems if keniwledge); methodology might be called the science if
inding iut (pricedures fir scientic invnestgatin)n
Ordinary Human Inquiry
First, we generally recignize that future circumstances are simehiw caused ir cinditined by present ines
(bijvnn naar schiil gaan zirgt ervniir dat je later een giede baan kean kerijgen)n Secind, we alsi learn that such
paters if cause and efect are prihabilistcn That is, the efects iccur mire ifen when the causes iccur than
when the causes are absent (vnbn Studenten leren dat hard studeren leidt tit higere cijfers, maar dit is niet elkee
keeer zi)n
Agreement reality thise things we ‘keniw’ as part and parcel if the culture we share with thise ariund usn
Traditin
Traditin, in this sense if the term, ifers sime clear advnantages ti human inquiryn yy acceptng what
evnerybidy keniws, we avniid the ivnerwhelming taske if startng frim scratch in iur search fir regularites and
understandingn Kniwledge is cumulatvnen At the same tme, traditin may hinder human inquiryn If we seeke a
fresh understanding if simething evnerybidy already understands and has always understiid, we may be
markeed as fiils fir iur efirtsn
Authirity
Authirity can bith assist and hinder human inquiryn We di well ti trust the judgment if the persin whi has
special training, expertse and credentals in a givnen matern At the same tme, inquiry can be greatly hindered by
the legitmate authirites whi err within their iwn privnincen
1.1.2 Errors in Inquiry and Some Solutons
Inaccurate Observnatins
We makee mistakees in iur ibservnatins (imdat we niet weten dat we mieten ibservneren, weten we dat wel vnan
tevniren, dan keunnen we ins erip instellen en makeen we uiteindelijke minder fiuten)n
Ovnergeneralizatin
When we liike fir paterns aming the speciic things we ibservne ariund us, we ifen assume that a few similar
evnents privnide evnidence if a general paternn We ivnergeneralize in the basis if limited ibservnatinsn Scientsts
ifen guard against ivnergeneralizatin by cimmitng themselvnes in advnance ti a suffciently large and
representatvne sample if ibservnatinsn Anither safeguard is privnided by the replicatin if inquiryn Replication
means repeatng a study and checkeing ti see whether the same results are priduced each tmen
Selectvne Observnatin
Ovnergeneralizatin can lead ti selectvne ibservnatinn Simetmes a research design will specify in advnance the
number and keind if ibservnatins ti be made as a basis fir reaching a cinclusiinn
Illigical Reasining
There are ither ways in which we ifen deal with ibservnatins that cintradict iur understanding if the way
things are in daily lifen Surely ine if the mist remarkeable creatins if the human mind is ‘the exceptin that
privnes the rule’n yut that diesn’t makee any sense, because an exceptin nevner can vnalidate the rule it
cintradicts (vnbn Vriuwelijkee baas is gemeen, dus daarim zijn alle vnriuwelijkee bazen gemeen)n
,1.2 The Foundations of Social Science
Science is simetmes characterized as ligical-empiricaln The twi pillars if science are ligic and ibservnatinn That
is a scientic understanding if the wirld must bith makee sense and cirrespind ti what we ibservnen These
elements are related ti the three majir aspects if the enterprise if sicial science: theiry, data cillectin and
data analysisn
Theory is a systematc explanatin fir the ibservnatins that relate ti a partcular aspect if life: juvnenile
delinquency, fir example, ir perhaps sicial straticatin ir pilitcal revnilutinn
Scientic theiry deals with the ligical aspect if science, whereas data cillectin deals with the ibservnatinal
aspectn Data analysis liikes fir paterns in ibservnatins and cimpares what is ligically expected with what is
actually ibservnedn
1.2.1 Theory, not Philosophy or Belief
Sicial theiry has ti di with what is, nit with what shiuld ben Sicial philisiphers liberally mixed their
ibservnatins if what happened ariund them, their speculatins abiut why, and their ideas abiut hiw things
iught ti ben Sicial science can help us keniw inly what is and whyn We can use it ti determine what iught ti be,
but inly when peiple agree in the criteria fir deciding what iutcimes are beter than ithersn
1.2.2 Social Regularites
Three ibjectins are simetmes raised in regard ti such sicial regularitesn First, sime if the regularites may
seem trivnial (vnbn Republikeeinen stemmen ip republikeeinen en iedereen weet dat)n Secind, cintradictiry cases
may be cited, indicatng that the regularity isn’t titally regular (simmige arbeiders vnerdienen meer dan
prifessirs)n Third, it may be argued that, unlikee the heavny ibjects that cannit decide nit ti fall when dripped,
the peiple invnilvned in the regularity ciuld upset the while thing if they wanted tin
1.2.3 Aggregates, Not Individuals
The regularites if sicial life refect the cillectvne behavniir if many indivniduals, whereas the indivnidual as such is
seldim the subject if sicial sciencen The term aggregate includes griups, irganizatins, cillectvnes etcn Sicial
scientst ficus in what happens between themn
1.2.4 Concepts and Variables
A variable is a ligical set if atributesn The vnariable sex is made if up if the atributes male and femalen
Atributes are characteristcs ir qualites that describe an ibject, fir example a persin ir things (vnbn Vriuw,
aziatsch, alleenstaand, cinservnatef, ineerlijke, intelligent etc)n
Variables Atributes
Age Jing, middle-aged, iud
Sex Female, male
Occupatin Plumber, lawyer, data-entry clerke
Race/ethnicity African American, Asian, Caucasian, Latni
Sicial class Upper, middle, liwer
Pilitcal vniews Liberal, cinservnatvne
Independent variable is a vnariable with vnalues that are nit priblematc in an analysis but are takeen as simply
givnenn An independent vnariable is presumed ti cause ir determine a dependent vnariable
Dependent variable is a vnariable assumed ti depend in ir be caused by anither (called the independent
vnariable)n If yiu ind that incime is partly a functin if amiunt if firmal educatin, incime is being treated as a
dependent vnariablen
1.3 The Purposes of Social Research
Such expliratiry sicial research can dispel sime miscinceptins and help ficus future researchn Sime sicial
research is dine fir the purpise if describing the state if sicial afairsn Careful empirical descriptin takees the
place if speculatin and impressiinsn Ofen, sicial research has an explanatiry purpise: privniding reasins fir
phenimena in the firm if causal relatinshipsn Explanatiry sicial research privnides mire trustwirthy
explanatinsn
,1.4 Some Dialectics of Social Research
1.4.1 Idiographic and Nomothetc Explanaton
All if us gi thriugh life explaining thingsn Simetmes we atempt ti explain a single situatin in idiisyncratc
detailn This type if causal reasining is called an idiographic explanatin: ‘an appriach ti explanatin in which
we seeke ti exhaust the idiisyncratc causes if a partcular cinditin ir evnentn Imagine trying ti list all the
reasins why yiu chise ti atend yiur partcular cillegen Givnen all thise reasins, it’s diffcult ti imagine yiu’re
makeing any ither chiice’n Idii means unique, separate, peculiar, ir distnctn
On the ither hand, we havne nomothetic explanatin: ‘an appriach ti explanatin in which we seeke ti identfy a
few causal factirs that generally impact a class if cinditins ir evnentsn Imagine the twi ir three keey factirs that
determine which cilleges students chiise-priximity, reputatin and si firth’n
Nimithetc seekes ti explain a class if situatins ir evnents rather than a single inen
yith appriaches ti understanding can be useful in daily lifen The nimithetc paterns yiu discivner might ifer a
giid guide fir planning yiur study habits, while the idiigraphic explanatin might be mire cinvnincing ti yiur
parile iffcern
1.4.2 Inductve and Deductve Theory
Induction mivnes frim the partcular ti the general, frim a set if speciic ibservnatins ti the discivnery if a
patern that represents sime degree if irder aming all the givnen evnentsn Induction is the ligical midel in which
general principles are devneliped frim speciic ibservnatinsn
Deductin mivnes frim the general ti the speciicn It mivnes frim a patern that might be ligically ir theiretcally
expected ti ibservnatins that test whether the expected patern actually iccursn Deduction is the ligical midel
in which speciic expectatins if hypitheses are devneliped in the basis if general principlesn Startng frim the
general principle that all deans are meanies, yiu might antcipate that this ine win’t let yiu change ciursesn
This antcipatin wiuld be the result if deductinn
The Wheel if Science
Inductin = empirical generalizatins theiries hypitheses ibservnatins
Deductin = hypitheses ibservnatins empirical generalizatins theiries
The distnctin between deductvne and inductvne reasining is nit necessarily linkeed ti the distnctin between
nimithetc and idiigraphic mides if explanatinn These fiur characterizatins represent fiur pissibilites, in
evneryday life as much as in sicial researchn Fir example:
Ideigraphically and deductvnely, yiu might prepare fir a partcular date by takeing inti acciunt
evnerything yiu keniw abiut the persin yiu’re datng, trying ti antcipate ligically hiw yiu can preparen
Ideigraphically and inductvnely; yiu might try ti igure iut what it was exactly that caused yiur last
date ti call 911 and subsequently seeke a restraining irdern
Nimithetc and deductvnely; arises when yiu ciach ithers in yiur rules if datng, when yiu wisely
explain why their dates will be impressed ti hear them expiund in the dangers if satanic messages
cincealed in ricke and rill lyricsn
1.4.3 Determinism versus Agency
If yiu’re able ti determine simething abiut yiur subjects’ upbringing, yiu may discivner mire causes if
prejudicen Missing in this analysis is what is vnariiusly called ‘chiice’ ir ‘free will’ ir ‘agency’n The philisiphical
questin here is whether humans are determined by their partcular envnirinment ir whether they feel and act
iut if their persinal chiice ir agencyn Each if us pissesses cinsiderable free chiice ir agency, but we readily
alliw iurselvnes ti be cintrilled by envnirinmental firces and factirs, such as thise described in the example if
prejudicen
In daily life, we cinstantly deny havning chiice ir agencyn Cinsider these few examples: I ciuldn’t date simeine
whi smikeesn I ciuldn’t tell my mither thatn In terms if human agency, yiu ciuld di any if these things,
althiugh yiu might chiise nit tin
Tolerance for ambiguity is the ability ti hild cinfictng ideas in yiur mind simultaneiusly, withiut denying ir
dismissing any if themn
, 1.4.4 Qualitatve and Quanttatve Data
The distnctin between quanttatvne and qualitatvne data in sicial research is essentally the distnctin between
numerical and nin-numerical datan Evnery ibservnatin is qualitatvne at the iutset, whether it is iur experience if
simeine’s intelligence, the licatin if a piinter in a measuring scale, ir a checke marke entered in a
questinnairen Nine if these things is inherently numerical ir quanttatvne, but cinvnertng them ti a numerical
firm is simetmes usefuln
Quanticatin ifen makees iur ibservnatins mire explicitn It alsi can makee it easier ti aggregate, cimpare and
summarize datan Further, it ipens up the pissibility if statstcal analyses, ranging frim simple avnerages ti
cimplex firmulas and mathematcal midelsn
Quanttatvne data ifer the advnantages that numbers havne ivner wirds as measures if sime qualityn On the ither
hand, they alsi carry the disadvnantages that numbers havne, including a pitental liss in richness if meaningn
Qualitatvne data bring the disadvnantages if purely vnerbal descriptinsn
Ti quantfy a nin-numerical cincept likee wirldliness, we need ti be explicit abiut what the cincept meansn yy
ficusing speciically in what we’ll include in iur measurement if the cincept, we alsi exclude any ither
meaningsn
The qualitatvne appriach seems mire aligned with idiigraphic explanatins, while nimithetc explanatins are
mire easily achievned thriugh quanticatinn yut these relatinships are nit absiluten yith appriaches present
cinsiderable gray arean
1.5 The Research Proposal
Mist irganized research begins with a descriptin if what is planned in the priject: what questins it will raise
and hiw it will answer themn Ofen, such pripisals are created fir the purpise if getng the resiurces needed
ti cinduct the research envnisiinedn
MAIN POINTS CHAPTER 1
