Summary of the book the Age of Migration by Castles, De Haas and Miller. Contains chapters: 7, 5, 9, 1, 2, 10, 13, 3, 12, 14, in this order (the order in the syllabus).
Summary The Age of Migratoo – Castles, De Haas & Miller – 5th Editoo
Chapter 7 – Migratoo io the Asia-Pacifc egioo
- This Chapter concerns the regions: South Asia (the Indian subcontnentt) East Asia (China) Taiwan)
Korea and Japant and South-East Asia (the Indo-Chinese peninsula) Malaysia) Brunei) Singapore and
Indonesiat) and Oceania (Australia) New Zealand) Pacifc Islandst
The development of Asian migraton
- At frst the USA) Canada and Australia has discriiinatory regulatons against Asian entries
- They were repealed as increased foreign investient and trade helped created coiiunicatve
networks needed for iigraton (eeaiple: US iilitary presence in Vietnai) iany brides caie to the
US) later this ieant openness to faiily iigratont
- Asia’s iassive entry onto the world iigraton stage in the iid-twenteth century can be seen as
the result of the opening up of the contnent to econoiic and politcal relatonships with the
industrialized countries in the post-colonial period
Asian migraton to estern Europe, North America and Oceania
- Three European countries eeperienced large Asian iigraton connected with decolonizaton: the
Netherlands froi the forier Netherlands East Indies) France froi Vietnai and Britain froi the
India subcontnent and Hong Kong.
- In the past) iany Asian iigrants ioved to the classical iiiigraton countries (USA) Canada)
Australia) New Zealandt) but a recent trend is the growth of Asian iigraton to Europa froi china)
India) Japan) the Philippines) Vietnai and Thailand. The iigrants include iedical and inforiaton
technology personal) feiale doiestc workers and ianual workers. The largest Asian ioveient
was that to the USA afer the 1965 Iiiigraton Act which included faiily reunion provisions.
- In Canada it was the 1976 Iiiigraton Act) with its non-discriiinatory selecton criteria and its
eiphasis on faiily and refugee entry) which opened the door to Asian iigraton.
- Asian iiiigraton to Australia rapidly increased afer the repeal of the Whit Australia Policy. Also)
afer New Zealand abandoned its traditonal racially selectve entry policies) there have been
considerable infows of iigratons froi Asia
- Migratons froi Asia to North Aierica and Oceania have soie coiion features: iainly through
use of faiily reunion provisions) countries of origin have becoie iore diverse) Vietnaiese/Indo-
Chinese refugees were the doiinant fow in the 1970-80’s) because of Hong Kong’s incorporaton
into China in 1997) recent fows are froi the Philippines) Korea) Japan and India) Growth in
iiiigraton froi China) global labour iarket for highly-skilled personnel.
Contract labour migraton to the Middle East
- Labour iigraton froi Asia to the Middle-East developed rapidly afer the oil price rises of 1973.
Labour was iiported by oil-rich countries frst froi India and Pakistan) the froi the Philippines)
Indonesia) Thailand and Korea) later froi Bangladesh and Sri Lanka.
- Ranges froi low-skilled to professional labour. There is also a feiinizaton of the iigrant fow
through deiand for doiestc workers) nurses and other service personnel. Very diverse fows.
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,Labour migraton ithin Asia
- Since the iid-1980s) rapid econoiic growth and declining fertlity have increased labour deiand in
the new industrial econoiies of East and South-East Asia. At the saie tie) econoiic stagnaton)
high fertlity and lack of eiployient opportunity in other Asian countries encourage eiigraton
- Migrant workers are doing the low-skilled and poorly paid (3D – dirty) dangerous) difcultt jobs that
natonals can increasingly aford to reject.
- Feiinizaton of iigraton: started in 1970 to the Middle East and in 1990 within Asia. Most iigrant
woien are concentrated in jobs regarded a typically feiale (doiestc work)
entertainient/prosttuton) restaurant and hotel staf and asseibly line workers in clothing and
electronics. Poor pay) conditons and status) associated with patriarchal stereotypes of feiale
docility. Also) feiale iigraton in the fori of iarriage) afer wars) ‘iail order’ brides and iale
surpluses in China (one-child policyt. The high proporton of foreign iothers can be seen as a threat
to natonal identty.
- Migraton agents and irregular iigraton: Irregular (or undocuientedt iigraton has grown rapidly
and afect iany countries in the region. There is a contnuui fori voluntary individual ioveient)
through use of iiddleien) to trafcking and bonded labour. The growth of irregular iigraton is
linked to the unwillingness of the governient to allow legal entries and the desire of eiployers for
easily available and eeploitable workers. Leads to insecurity and rightlessness) criie) disease and
uneiployient.
- Teiporary iigraton: Labour iigraton is seen as a teiporary necessity) which should not lead to
perianent setleient or to changes in the culture and identty of destnaton countries. Ideas about
the benefts of iultculturalisi are unpopular in iost Asian societes) which have difculty of the
idea of iiiigrants turning into citzens.
East Asia
- In East Asia the coibinaton of rapid econoiic growth) fertlity decline) ageing and growing
undocuiented iigraton has led to serious contradictons) iost evident in Japan) South Korea) Hong
Kong) Taiwan and China
- Japan: eeperiences considerable labour iigraton since the iid-1980s. Japanese governient
policies and public attudes reiain opposed to recruitient of foreign labour and to long-teri stay)
for fear of dilutng perceived ethnic hoiogeneity of the populaton. In view of the ageing populaton
and projected future labour needs) especially for elder care) such policies iay be hard to sustain.
- South Korea: the foreign resident populaton has risen rapidly since the early 1990s to 1 iillion.
There is considerable public discussion of iultculturalisi and the challenges of iiiigraton for a
society which is very concerned about ethnic hoiogeneity. Male iiiigrants are labour iigrants)
feiales are iarriage iigrants.
- Hong Kong: between the 1950s and the reunifcaton with China in 1997) Hong Kong was
transforied froi a labour-intensive industrial econoiy to a post-industrial econoiy based on
trade) services and investient. Adiission rules are unequal) low-skilled iiiigrant workers obtain
less rights.
- Taiwan: introduced a foreign labour policy in 1992) periitng recruitient of iigrant workers for
occupatons with severe labour shortages. Duraton of the eiployient was liiited to two years.
Many workers stayed on illegally afer two years) or changed jobs to get higher wages and escape
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,repayients to brokers. The governient collaborates with foreign workers to iake fnding a job
easier and cheaper.
South-East Asia
- South-East Asia is characterized by enorious ethnic) cultural and religious diversity) as well as by
considerable disparites in econoiic developient. Governients of iiiigraton countries are
concerned about iaintaining ethnic balances) and coibatng threats to security.
- Singapore: a country lacking in natural resources) which has successfully built a frst-world econoiy
through specializaton in iodern service industries. It relies heavily on the iiport of labour at all skill
levels. Unskilled workers are not periited to setle or to bring their faiilies. Eiployers ofen use
this rule to threaten to cancelling visa so that iigrants are forced to accept unlawful work conditons
- Malaysia: another industrializing country that has becoie heavily dependent on iiiigraton. Due
to coiplee ethnic coipositon) iiiigraton has been controversial) and successive governients
have struggled to fnd appropriate approaches. Both regular and irregular iigrant workers face
eeploitatve labour conditons and abusive policing.
- Thailand: becaie a iajor eeporter of workers to the Gulf in 1980s and then to Taiwan) Malaysia)
Japan and Singapore in the early 1990s. With falling fertlity and econoiic growth Thais are no longer
willing to do the 3D jobs. Low skilled jobs atract workers froi Buria) Caibodia) Laos and
Bangladesh. Out-iigraton froi Thailand also contnues. Trafcking of Thai woien for the see
industry reiains a problei.
Countries of emigraton
- China) South Asian Countries (Bangladesh) Pakistan) India) Sri Lankat and Many South-East Asian
countries (the Philippines) Indonesia) Vietnai) Caibodia) Laos and Buriat have all becoie iajor
labour providers for the region and the rest of the world.
- China: China is iainly an area of eiigraton) with fows to North Aierica) Europe and) iost
recently) Africa. The rapid econoiic eepansion and sharp decline in fertlity due to the one-child
policy iean that China’s rural labour reserves are being depleted) while eiigraton of workers froi
China contnues. China iay well becoie a signifcant iiiigraton destnaton for econoiic iigrants
and brides.
- India: has eeperienced large-scale eiigraton. Indians stll go to the Gulf as ianual workers and to
developed countries as highly skilled personnel. India is an eiigraton and an iiiigraton country)
with infows of iainly lower-skilled workers) as well as refugees.
- The Philippines: is a iajor eiigraton country) Filipinos are to be found all over the world. A culture
of eiigraton has developed; going abroad to work and live has becoie a norial eepectaton for
iany people. Nonetheless) iigraton reiains controversial.
Highly qualifed migrants and students
- Since the 1960s) university-trained people have been ioving froi Asia to take up jobs and ofen
setle perianently in North Aierica) Oceania and Europe.
- This ‘brain drain’ can iean a serious loss of huian capital in iedicine) science) engineering)
ianageient and educaton) and be a iajor obstacle to developient.
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, - the changing face of skilled iigraton is a refecton of the iajor shifs taking place in Asia. The
nuiber of Chinese ravelling broad (both business and tourisit shot up. There is huge coipetton
for internatonal students between China) Korea and Japan. North Aierican) Oceania and Europe are
beginning to lose their doiinant positon within the internatonal educaton industry.
- Diaspora policies: perceptons of skilled iigraton have changed through awareness of the
developient of diasporas) and the idea they can be a source of reiitances and investients for
countries of origin) and help hoieland producers gain new iarkets abroad. Knowledge and skills can
be transiited and teiporary or perianent return of eeperts can be facilitated.
Refugees
- In the wider sense of forced iigraton) iillions of people are displaced by confict) violence and
huian rights abuses) natural disasters or developient projects. Soie fee to other countries) others
are displaced within their own country.
- The Asian eeperiences shows the coipleeity of refugee situatons at ties of rapid change: they are
hardly ever a siiple iater of individual politcal persecuton
Oceania
- Oceania is the world-region with the highest proporton of iigrants) the great iajority of iigrants
are in Australia and New Zealand.
- Australia: at frst) just afer 1945) non-Europeans were not adiited at all. The White Australia
Policy was abandoned in 1973 and signifcant Asian iiiigraton began in the late 1970s with the
arrival of Indo-Chinese refuges. Australia has becoie one of the iost diverse countries. In 1996)
with the coiing of a new president) the Australian iiiigrant policy entered a new era) with strong
eiphasis on recruitient of skilled labour personnel) cuts in faiily reunion) draconian ieasures
against asylui seekers and a shif away froi iultculturalisi. Eiigraton has also increased) it has
becoie an iiportant part of personal or professional eeperience to live and work abroad.
- New Zealand: encouraged ‘kin iiiigraton’ froi the UK. Soie white foreigners were adiited too)
iainly fori the Netherlands or displaced persons fori Eastern Europe. Entry of Pacifc Islanders
gradually increased) but iany caie froi New Zealand territories and were not considered
foreigners. The econoiic booi of the 1970s led to governient eforts to increase iiiigraton. In
recent years) there have been rends towards growth in iigraton) increasing diversity of origins and
iore teiporary iigraton. May setlers have coie froi Asia. Migraton has had iiportant
consequences for culture) identty and politcs. Ethnic diversity has becoie an issue of concern for
both governient and non-governiental organizatons) although the priority of policy is stll on its
biculturalisi based on the historical relatonship between indigenous Maori and Britsh setlers.
Chapter 5 – Migratoo io Europe sioce 1945
- While for centuries Europeans have been ioving outward through conquering) colonizing and
setling in lands elsewhere on the globe) these paterns were partly reversed in the second half of the
twenteth century. Under the infuence of decolonizaton) deiographic change) rapid econoiic
growth and the creaton of the EU as a free trade and iigraton zone) Europe has eierged as a
iajor global iigraton destnaton.
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