Classical Theories
Classical School Theory
Rational Choice Theory
Routine Activities Theory
Control Theory
Classical School Theory: Individuals are rational actors who make choices based on their
own self-interest. This theory suggests that the threat of punishment serves as a deterrent.
Punishment is seen as a necessary and just response to criminal behavior, it should be
proportionate to the crime and not excessive (Cesare Beccaria). Beccaria also supported the
idea of hedonism, which refers to the idea that individuals engage in criminal behavior as a
result of seeking pleasure or avoiding pain. The Classical School Theory is based on ideas of
utilitarianism, which holds that the goal of society should be to maximize happiness and
minimize pain, so punishment should serve the greatest good for the greatest number (Jeremy
Bentham).
Rational Choice Theory: Individuals are rational actors who make decisions based on a
cost-benefit analysis to engage in criminal activities when the perceived benefits outweigh
the perceived costs. Circumstances, situations, and possibilities influence decisions, as these
factors are taken into account in the calculations of the cost-benefit analysis. This theory
suggests that the threat of punishment serves as a deterrent. The punishment should be
proportionate to the severity of the crime. Strategies for controlling crime:
o General deterrence: people will commit crime and delinquency if they perceive that
the benefits outweigh the risks. Crime is a function of severity, certainty and speed of
punishment.
o Specific deterrence: If punishment is severe enough, criminals will not repeat their
illegal act(s). The emphasis is on discouraging the same individual from engaging in
crime again through the use of punishment.
o Incapacitation: Keeping known criminals out of circulation by removing them from
society will reduce the crime rate.
Routine Activities Theory: Crime is a function of the convergence of three elements: (1) a
motivated offender, (2) a suitable target, and (3) a lack of capable guardianship. A
motivated offender refers to someone with the inclination to commit a crime, driven by
various factors such as economic need or personal grievances. A suitable target refers to an
object of person that is attractive to a potential offender due to factors like perceived value
and accessibility. The lack of a capable guardian refers to the absence of someone or
something that could prevent the crime, such as law enforcement or surveillance. This theory
is seen as an extension of the Rational Choice Theory.
Control Theory: Individuals are inherently inclined toward criminal behavior, and social
bonds are necessary to prevent them from engaging in such behavior. The stronger an
individual’s social bonds, the less likely they are to commit crimes. The role of self-control is
emphasized in preventing criminal behavior; individuals with low self-control are impulsive,
, risk-taking, and prone to pursuing short-term gratification without considering long-term
consequences. Four social bonds that influence an individual’s likelihood of engaging in
criminal behavior:
o Attachment: The emotional connection and affection individuals have for others, such
as family, friends, or institutions.
o Commitment: The investment of time, energy, and effort in conventional activities,
such as education or career pursuits.
o Involvement: Participation in conventional activities that leave less time and
opportunity for deviant behavior.
o Belief: The acceptance and internalization of societal values and norms.
Biological Theories
Older Biological Theories:
o Phrenology
o Italian School Approach & Atavism
o Somatotyping
Contemporary Biological Theories:
o Twin studies
o Adoption Studies
o Genetics: XYY-chromosomes (“supermales”)
Phrenology: The study of the formation of the skull as indicative of mental capacities and
character traits. The brain is divided into distinct regions, each responsible for different
aspects of personality, intelligence, and behavior. Specific areas of the skull are associated
with particular mental faculties or traits. Phrenologists claimed that by examining the bumps
on an individual’s skull, they could identify the strengths and weaknesses of various mental
faculties.
Italian School Approach: This theory emphasizes the role of biology and the physical
characteristics of individuals in understanding criminal behavior. One of the key elements in
atavism, which refers to the idea that some individuals tend to revert to something ancient or
ancestral; certain individuals exhibit traits reminiscent of less evolved, more primitive stages
of human development. Lombroso introduced the concept of “born criminals” which refers
to the idea that some individuals are biologically more determined to engage in criminal
activities. Lombroso identified “stigmata of criminality”, physical signs that indicated a
person’s criminal tendencies, such as a sloping forehead or a large jaw.
Somatotyping: This theory correlates human body types with personality traits and criminal
tendencies. Individuals can be classified into three primary body types:
1. Endomorph: round or soft physique, with a tendency to store fat. Individuals are
guided by their mouth and stomach which leads to delinquency and fraud.
