Book: Chapter 1
Criminology is the study of crime, justice, law and order issues, and the broader dynamics of
societies in terms of informing how those things exist and are experienced. So, this means that
in criminology things like the social context, cultural context, political climate, economy,
globalization, and human rights also need to be considered The interdisciplinarity of
criminology: it draws in the expertise and knowledge of people working across many
academic disciplines.
The criminal justice system includes:
Lawmaking
Enforcement of laws (police)
Processing
Defense and sentencing (via crown prosecution service and the court system)
Prisons and probation (instruments for punishment)
Laws are not fixed, because crime is fluid. The decision to criminalize certain behaviors is
influenced by pressure from the public, the media, pressure groups, political or ideological
agendas, changing social and cultural attitudes, technological developments, and so on. There
is often a moral component to how we understand behavior and whether they are viewed as
being problematic.
Needless criminalization: actions or behaviors are treated as crimes when they shouldn’t be,
leading to unnecessary legal penalties. Disadvantaged to being criminalized (example: the
criminalization of homosexuality, abortion, or rape within marriage).
Intersectionality: the consideration of how multiple social factors, like race, gender, and
socioeconomic status, intersect and influence a person’s experience with the criminal justice
system. This combination of dynamics can create issues, such as criminal justice inequalities.
How much is viewed as ‘crime’ is a product of the dynamics of society at a given point in
time. Deviancy: acts that are outside of the mainstream values and norms of society. Some
prefer to use this term over ‘crime’.
,Different types of crime:
Acquisitive crime: acquisition or gain of property, money, or a tangible reward (theft,
robbery, fraud).
Expressive crime: does not involve the acquisition of goods but is linked to emotions and
emotional release (anger, frustration, sexual violence). The act itself is the goal.
Property crime: acquisition of property or damage to property (criminal damage,
vandalism).
Crimes against the person: can be an individual or a group (act of violence).
Sexual offense: all manner of unwanted or inappropriate sexual behavior against a person
or group (physical or emotional).
White-collar crime: financially motivated, nonviolent, or non-directly violent crime,
usually in a work context, for own personal gain (fraud, theft).
Corporate crime: acts committed by or on behalf of a company for the benefit of
company goals (financial transactions, industrial espionage).
Occupational crime: illegal activities by individuals as part of their employment.
Crimes of the powerful: acts committed by those in positions of power, this can also be
governments and businesses (abusing position, corruption, impunity).
State crime: acts committed or advocated by states/governments to achieve goals
(genocide, systematic torture).
State-corporate crime: illegal actions that occur when one or more institutions of
political governance pursue a goal in direct cooperation with one of more institutions of
economic production and distribution.
Peace crime: abhorrent and terrible acts against humanity (genocide, systematic torture).
Social harms: acts that harm communities or specific groups of people, these acts are
often not dealt by formal laws (racism, sexism).
War crime: an act carried out during a conflict or war that violates accepted international
rules of war (murder, ill-treatment of prisoners of war).
Status offenses and crimes: acts that are prohibited for certain groups and contexts.
(underage use of alcohol, skipping school, running away from home).
Hate crime: a crime that is motivated by prejudice based on the characteristics of the
victim (age, gender, religion, ethnicity, culture, sexuality).
Cybercrime: acts using or facilitated by emerging information and communication
technologies/internet (email fraud, cyber espionage, ransomware attacks).
Book: Chapter 5
, Crime-mapping: the process through which analysts in law enforcement use location
information about crime events to map, visualize, and analyze crime incident patterns. This
can determine hot-spot areas, so resources can be directed accordingly to tackle crime.
Different ways to measure crime:
Official statistics and police-recorded data
o Flaw: not all crimes are recognized, because victims might distrust police or are
embarrassed.
o Flaw: not all crimes are reported, because there isn’t always enough evidence.
o Flaw: not all crimes are recorded, because only a fraction of the total amount of crime
ends up in the crime statistics. Attrition: the increasing loss of cases leading to a
decrease in the number of cases).
Victimization survey
o Flaw: it entails asking a representative sample of people
o Flaw: issues around memories and truthfulness (because of social desirability)
o Flaw: recognition element
Self-report survey
o Advantage: can capture crimes that aren’t recognized or reported
o Advantage: can capture victimless crimes
o Flaw: issues around memories and truthfulness (because of social desirability)
Data from NGOs and investigative journalism
o Advantage: can capture offenses that are more difficult to track, such as underground
crimes, or crimes on an international or transnational scope.
Culture of control: a societal approach that emphasizes the use of punishment and social
control mechanisms to manage and regulate deviant behavior. The increased use of
punishment results from a tougher outlook on crime and offenders. There is no aim to ‘fix’ the
criminals and reinsert them into society anymore.
Recidivism: a previously convicted person reoffends or commits new crimes after serving a
sentence of undergoing rehabilitation.
Book: Chapter 6
