A simple, neat, bullet pointed document covering characteristics of stress, two biological explanations and evaluations, two individual differences explanations and evaluations, two social psychological explanations and evaluations as well as two explanations and evaluations for methods of modifyin...
Stress is psychological and physical strain or tension created by physical, emotional, social or
economic circumstances or experiences that are difficult to manage or endure
There are two main elements of stress:
o Stress as a physical response
o Stress as a psychological response
Physical response - A general physical response to stress as demonstrated in research on rats
involves the activation of the nervous system to release hormones such as cortisol and
adrenaline which make us more able to cope with the stressor e.g. adrenaline prepares the body
to react to the fight or flight response
Psychological response – Our stress response also depends on how we perceive it. The
transactional model of stress presents stress as an interaction between the person and the
environment. When the stressor is experienced, the person makes a judgement of whether they
have the resources available to cope. The primary appraisal involves consideration of whether
the threat is significant or harmful in any way. The secondary appraisal is the consideration of
resources available to combat the stressor. Weighing up these two determines what stress
response is generated
There are three different types of stress
Acute stress – this is the most common form of stress and is the response to an immediate
threat such as taking an exam or a work deadline
Episodic acute stress – this refers to repeated incidences of short-term stress e.g. taking on too
much work and therefore experiencing frequent demands of your time. Occasionally, this type
of stress will cease but it can become a part of some individuals personality and normal lifestyle
Chronic stress – This is stress which persists over long periods of time, for example persistent
relationship problems like an unhappy marriage. An individual with chronic stress will see no
escape from a seemingly endless situation and it can be difficult to treat as the individual may
have got used to it
Stress has different effects:
Physical – Short term stress can cause lots of physical effects e.g. increased blood pressure,
headaches and stomach problems. It can also have a long-term effect of leading to physical
illness as many studies have shown stress can damage the immune system leaving people
vulnerable to infection and illness like coronary heart disease
Psychological – Stress can leave people feeling isolated with low self-esteem and cause mental
health problems like anxiety and depression and the stress can cause them to feel as though
they can't cope
Lifestyle – Individuals can turn to lifestyle changes as coping mechanisms such as smoking or
drinking which will only worsen the stress
,Biological explanation one – Adrenaline and acute stress:
This explanation focuses on the physiological response to short term acute stressors
When someone perceives a stressor e.g. a dog running in front of their car, the
hypothalamus in the brain stimulates the sympathetic nervous system which is part of
the autonomic nervous system
The sympathetic nervous system stimulates the adrenal medulla just above the kidney
causing the release of neurotransmitters adrenaline and noradrenaline into the blood
stream which produce the physiological changes associated with the fight or flight
response e.g.:
o Increased heart rate and blood pressure
o Carbohydrates mobilized to provide energy
o Increased muscle tension
o Dilation of pupils
o Inhibition of digestion
Once the stressor has passed, the parasympathetic nervous system kicks in to bring the
body back to normal functioning
This process is called the sympathomedullary pathway (SAM) as it involves the
sympathetic nervous system and the adrenal medulla
The SAM is often referred to as fight or flight response because the neurotransmitters
prepare the body to be offensive or defensive to deal with the threat
Blood and energy are diverted from our non-essential organs and systems (e.g. digestive
system) and go to muscles to help us cope with the immediate stressor as our senses
are sharpened and our bodies are primed
The fight or flight response evolved as an adaptive strategy to deal with threats to our
distant ancestors such as facing a saber-toothed tiger where either fight or flight
requires a lot of energy
However, in the modern world threats and stressors have evolved to become more
psychological and emotional such as sitting exams or work pressure but the way we
respond has not evolved causing the physiological response to be activated but not
utilised leaving the individual in a long-term state of physiological arousal which can
have detrimental effects on our health
The heart is particularly susceptible to long term stress so cardiovascular disorders can
occur. During ForF response, the sympathetic nervous system causes constriction of
blood vessels, increased heart rate and increased blood pressure so the whol
cardiovasular system is working hard. If stress is long term, the system will become
more damaged such as arteries blocking due to dislodging of plaque on vessel walls, so
illness occurs
, Adrenaline and acute stress evaluation:
Strength – There is supporting evidence for this explanation. Jonathan Leor et al found
an increase in number of deaths caused by cardiovascular problems the day of the
Northridge California earthquake in 1994. This was a unique opportunity to assess the
effects of an acute stressor without creating one in a lab making it more ethical and
more realistic. There’s also a condition called cardiomyopathy which affects people who
suffer great emotional distress after something like bereavement. There’s a massive
release of adrenaline which paralyses the bottom half of the heart causing the top to
work harder. This can on occasion cause death. Both examples support the link between
adrenaline, stress and heart problems
Weakness – Stress may not be a causal factor. Dimsdale says we must be cautious when
saying stress causes heart problems as there’s many other factors involved including
high cholesterol levels or behaviours like smoking. Data published from there UK million
women study suggested previous research failed to fully address issues of cause and
effect. Liu et al suggests people who are ill may report higher stress levels and less
happiness rather than the reverse that the stress caused the illness. This shows there’s
difficult in establishing causal relationships
Strength – There have been several useful applications developed based on this theory.
Biological drugs are commonly used for treatment and management of stress for
example beta blockers are prescribed for heart conditions and reduce activity in the
sympathetic nervous system therefore alleviating stress symptoms. Neftel et al found
participants given atenolol (a type of beta blocker) had lower heart rates, better
performance, and less fear than a control group showing beta blockers are an effective
way of decreasing the stress response. This shows the explanation has useful
applications in the real world
Weakness – This explanation is reductionist. It reduces the complex response to stress
to a simple physiological process from our evolutionary past. Clearly, it supports the
nature side of the nature vs nurture debate so offers an incomplete picture that doesn’t
account for individual differences. It is an outdated view of stress in the modern world,
and other more interactionist approaches like the diathesis stress model provide a more
realistic explanation. The diathesis stress model proposes that some individuals are
more vulnerable to stress but the impact of this nature component is only triggered
when it interacts with stressful life experiences. Overall, this explanation doesn’t
provide the full picture
Conclusion – In conclusion, there is evidence to demonstrate this explanation such as
the findings of Leor et al and the condition called cardiomyopathy. Furthermore, this
explantion has useful applications in the real world like beta blockers so can benefit
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