Samenvatting
Urban Dynamics - Block I (Midterm summary)
- Instelling
- Universiteit Van Amsterdam (UvA)
This is the final summary of the first course for the course ("Urban Dynamics: Amsterdam in Context".
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WEEK 1Couch - Urban Planning
Importance of urban planning: it is essential to address the complexities of growing urban areas. Without
planning, cities would sprawl uncontrollably, leading to inefficient and inequitable development patterns,
environmental degradation, and resource depletion. Governments worldwide recognize the importance of urban
planning in ensuring efficiency, equity, and sustainable growth. Planning coordinates infrastructure provision,
conserves resources, and fosters inclusive communities.
Economists justify state intervention in urban planning based on two main functions: legitimation (ensuring
social harmony and security) and accumulation (supporting economic growth). State-led planning addresses
market imperfections, such as the gap between private and social costs, and provides essential infrastructure and
services that markets cannot efficiently supply. Urban planning also addresses market distortions, facilitates
competition, and ensures the provision of vital urban amenities and services.
Also, the state may provide merit goods based on political judgments that certain groups should have access to
these goods or services regardless of their ability to pay or personal desires. Examples include education and
healthcare for children. Given income disparities, state intervention aims to redress imbalances by assisting
those least able to compete or obtain basic necessities. Transfer payments and subsidies are common tools for
achieving these aims. In summary, the state intervenes in urban areas. It engages in planning to provide social or
physical capital investment, alleviate market imperfections, address the social costs of economic activity, and
prevent social unrest.
The process: has evolved significantly over time. Early theories of planning followed a linear process of survey,
analysis, and planning. By the 1960s, there was a rational shift and the city was viewed as a complex system,
leading to the recognition that planning decisions had broad impacts across the urban environment. However,
the comprehensive and rational approach to planning proved impractical. Lindblom proposed a more
incremental approach to decision-making, acknowledging the limitations of comprehensive planning. Etzioni
suggested a mixed-scanning approach, where only abnormal situations trigger a detailed investigation.
Additionally, planning was recognized as inherently political, serving various interests and sometimes resulting
in conflicts.
The 1960s saw a growing movement towards public participation in planning decisions, driven by
social conflicts, the civil rights movement in the USA, and a desire for more inclusive decision-making
in Europe.
By the 1970s, many countries had enacted legislation to facilitate public involvement in planning
processes.
In the 1990s, there was a shift towards a more collaborative approach to urban planning, emphasizing
negotiation and consensus-building. Critics have questioned the feasibility of achieving consensus
amidst conflict but recognize the importance of collective knowledge and experience in planning
practice.
Urban planning agenda: it aims to shape the physical, economic, social, and environmental dimensions of cities
and regions. Urban planning operates on multiple scales and contexts, including regional, neighborhood, city,
metropolitan, and even individual site levels. The planning agenda has evolved to include broader economic,
social, and environmental concerns, moving beyond a narrow focus on physical entities to embrace holistic
urban development. The essence of planning lies in mediating space and creating place, balancing control and
management with creativity. This involves determining land use amidst competing interests and designing and
implementing development and change in urban areas, ranging from new city construction to street redesign.
While discussions of planning theories are important, this book primarily focuses on what planners aim to
achieve in terms of "good city form". It draws on historical urban change, contemporary planning theories, and
professional practice examples from various countries, emphasizing an international perspective. The European
,Council of Spatial Planners emphasizes that planning is “both a management and creative activity, aiming to
promote development while respecting individual rights and the common good”.
Early urban development: Cities like Uruk in Mesopotamia and Athens in Greece represent some of the earliest
examples of urban settlements. These early cities, while often organic in growth, also exhibited elements of
planning, such as the separation of land uses and civic and religious buildings. The Roman civilization further
contributed to the development of planned and organized towns in Europe. Roman cities were typically laid out
in a gridiron pattern with major streets intersecting at marketplaces or forums. Many modern European cities
still bear traces of their Roman origins in their street patterns and architectural heritage.
Following the decline of the Roman Empire, during Medieval times the process of re-urbanization began.
However, most medieval towns developed organically with little regulation or comprehensive planning. There
were exceptions, such as fortified "bastide" towns in North Wales and South-west France, and planned colonial
settlements in the "new world" by European powers like Britain, France, and Spain. The imposition of
rectangular grid patterns (= squared, rectangular structure, with right angles) was common in North America,
while planned interventions were rarer in the UK, where redevelopment was predominantly organic.
The Industrial Revolution marked a significant turning point in urban development, leading to unprecedented
population growth, economic expansion, and social changes. This period saw the emergence of contemporary
cities with their complex social, economic, political, and environmental challenges, necessitating increased state
intervention to plan and manage urban areas effectively. Therefore, discussions about urban change and
planning in this book begin with the Industrial Revolution, as it represents a pivotal moment in the history of
urban planning.
Changing cities of the 19th century
Nineteenth century: witnessed significant changes in urban development and city landscapes, largely driven by
the Industrial Revolution and its associated economic, social, and technological transformations. Here are some
key aspects of the changing city during this period:
- Primary Urbanization: new workplaces and housing for workers and their families were created in
urban areas to support industries such as mining, textile manufacturing, and heavy engineering.
- Secondary Urbanization: supporting industries, infrastructure investment, and service sectors
emerged to meet the needs of the growing urban population and industries. This secondary wave of
urbanization included the development of subsidiary industries, financial services, healthcare,
education, and governance.
- Tertiary Urbanization: the growth of industrial and commercial centers created larger markets and
agglomeration economies, attracting businesses and service providers. Cities offered economies of
scale and comparative advantages, leading to the expansion of local service sectors and markets.
Suburbanization and leisure urbanization: the rising middle class, with increased spending power, contributed to
suburbanization as people sought to move away from congested inner cities to the outskirts. Leisure towns and
seaside resorts emerged as destinations for leisure and recreation, catering primarily to affluent middle-class and
elderly populations.
London and Paris: emerged as dominant urban centers during the 19th century, each with unique characteristics
and roles in the national and international economy. London's financial services sector and political dominance,
along with its industrial base (concentration of middle class and aristocratic wealth) contributed to its rapid
growth and complexity. Paris, similarly influential, dominated the French economy and cultural life, maintaining
its position as a leading European city.
Structure and dynamics of the industrial city
Market forces and urban restructuring: urbanization led to competition for prime central locations, driving
up land prices. This resulted in the intensification of land use, with sub-optimal sites being cleared and rebuilt
,for higher-density developments. Industrialization contributed to the deterioration of housing conditions, as low
wages and laissez-faire economic policies limited investment in housing.
Expansion of the service sector: the growth of trade and industry necessitated a range of ancillary services and
infrastructure, leading to the expansion of office employment. Offices and retail establishments tended to
gravitate towards central areas, driving land use intensification and displacing less profitable uses.
Transportation revolution: the advent of railways caused significant disruption and forced urban restructuring
as mainline stations and termini were constructed within city centers. Railways reordered patterns of
accessibility, enhanced land values near stations, and stimulated new land uses such as hotels and warehousing.
Urban sprawl: improvements in urban transportation allowed cities to sprawl over larger areas without
economic loss. Technological advancements, such as motor vehicles, enabled suburban expansion and the
development of peripheral industrial estates. Suburbanization led to the decentralization of residential and
industrial land uses (relationship: as the distance from the city center increases, rent goes down).
City center dynamics: despite suburbanization, city centers remained hubs of service sector employment and
retail activity. Office employment and comparison goods retailing remained concentrated in city centers due to
accessibility advantages and transportation networks.
Origins of modern planning: The origins of modern town planning can be traced back to the late 18th and early
19th centuries. Entrepreneurs like David Dale, Robert Owen, and Sir Titus Salt developed industrial villages
for their workers, providing decent housing, schools, healthcare, and recreational facilities. These initiatives
aimed to improve workers' living conditions and productivity. State Interventions such as the Public Health
Act 1848 and the Public Health Act 1875, aimed to improve urban living conditions by addressing issues like
water supply, sewerage, and housing quality.
Ebenezer Howard proposed the creation of integrated suburban settlements with communal land ownership,
low-density housing, and ample green space. Howard's ideas inspired the establishment of the Garden City
Association and the development of Letchworth as the first garden city. Similar movements emerged globally,
such as Germany's Garden City Association and the City Beautiful movement in the USA.
Germany, the UK, France, and the Netherlands
During the first period of rapid urbanization in Germany from the 1830s to the 1870s, town extension planning
became commonplace, with cities laying out streets and providing utilities for new suburbs. German cities
utilized grand designs for these suburbs, featuring broad main streets and ample public spaces. In contrast, the
UK relied on market forces to shape urban growth, but this didn't necessarily result in better urban conditions.
While extension planning in Germany initially did little to control land use intensity, it did produce a cadre of
professional architects and engineers skilled in town planning, unlike in the UK. By the early 20th century,
voices in the UK advocated for German-style town extension planning to replace incremental intervention. The
Housing and Town Planning Act of 1909 allowed urban authorities to prepare town planning schemes for
peripheral areas.
Meanwhile, in France, rising concerns about public health and social unrest led to ambitious civic improvement
programs in major cities. Georges Haussmann's renovation of Paris is the most famous example of such
programs, though similar initiatives took place in Lyon, Marseille, Bordeaux, and Lille. However, these
programs often displaced poor tenants and increased overcrowding in nearby slums. In the Netherlands, the
Housing Act of 1901 empowered municipalities to establish building regulations, finance building associations,
and prepare extension plans to address poor urban housing conditions. H.P. Berlage's plan for Amsterdam South
aimed for less dense and greener housing, recognizing the need for mass production of dwellings.
, The inter-war period: housing construction and slum clearance were disrupted across Europe. In the UK, the
acute housing shortage after the war prompted the government to establish the Tudor Walters Committee, which
recommended the construction of generously proportioned, traditionally built houses in low-density cottage
estates. In France, Le Corbusier's Radiant City proposed a high-rise, high-density alternative to the garden city
concept. These plans envisioned a compact urban environment with high-rise towers surrounded by landscaped
parkland, emphasizing efficiency through standardization, prefabrication, and mass production.
In the USA, Wright's concept of Broadacre City advocated for extremely low-density living, with each family
given one acre of land, promoting suburbanization as a solution to urban ills. This idea influenced suburban
development but faced criticism from later writers like Jane Jacobs. In the Netherlands, the General Extension
Plan of Amsterdam (1934) utilized a scientific approach to urban planning, reflecting careful consideration of
social needs and preserving natural aspects while accommodating medium-density layouts.
Urban planning during and after WWII: the late 1940s saw the repair and reconstruction of war-damaged cities
across Europe, with varying approaches from recreating historical architecture to modernist redesigns
emphasizing functionality and efficiency.
In the UK, the Royal Commission on the Distribution of the Industrial Population highlighted the imbalanced
growth between London and the North, advocating for restrictions on industrial investment in London and
incentives for investment in other regions. The Greater London Plan of 1944, based on Abercrombie's County
of London Plan, aimed to stabilize the city-regions population and proposed a green belt to protect countryside
areas from further development. While London's green belt has been preserved, it has led to inflated property
values and long commutes for residents in outer areas. Some argue that an alternative system of green wedges
and development corridors with high-quality public transport might have been a more efficient design solution.
Planning in the post-war period: the UK initiated significant urban development initiatives proposed by
Abercrombie. It aimed to alleviate housing pressures in central London by creating new towns like Stevenage,
Harlow, and Crawley. Eventually, new towns were designated for other cities' overflow populations and as
economic growth points in declining regions. Initially, these towns were self-contained, providing housing,
employment, and social amenities, but over time, there was increased private sector involvement, leading to
more commuting and a breakdown of the original self-contained model. Despite not fully meeting expectations,
the UK's new towns program influenced similar developments internationally, such as in France (e.g. Marne la
Vallée) and the Netherlands (e.g. Almere).
From modernism to postmodernism: the transition from modernism to postmodernism in urban planning lies in
a shift in focus from urban sprawl control and design improvement towards addressing overcrowding and poor
housing conditions in major cities. The UK government sought faster housing completions and higher-density
development, leading to the construction of high-rise housing using industrialized techniques. Early
successes like the Roehampton Estate in London initially validated high-rise housing but proved unsustainable
due to higher building and maintenance costs, along with tenant dissatisfaction. The 1967 economic crisis and
the Ronan Point gas explosion in 1968 further discredited high-rise construction in the UK. In contrast,
continental Europe continued to favor high-rise housing for mass housing provision, with France and Eastern
European socialist economies implementing large-scale high-rise developments.
Ian Nairn decried the degradation of the physical environment. He emphasized the need for greener countryside
and neater, more compact towns amidst industrialization and population growth. In the mid-20th century, a
growing awareness of the need for sustainable development began to emerge, marked by several significant
movements in urban planning and environmental conservation. In the UK, organizations like the Civic Trust
advocated for better design, conservation, and appreciation of architectural heritage. Despite initial losses such
as Euston Station and the City of London Coal Exchange, public awareness of preserving built heritage grew. In
the USA, Jane Jacobs advocated for mixed-use neighborhoods and community involvement in planning. This
perspective challenged the prevailing notion of mono-functional housing projects.
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