Qualitative Methods in Media and
Communication
Final Exam – Study Material
LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION TO QUALITATIVE Choosing a sample/ types of samples .......................... 10
RESEARCH ..................................................................... 3 Interviews and their purposes ........................................ 10
Interviewer as miner vs. interviewer as traveller ...... 11
Characteristics of interviews and good interviewer 11
Principles & features of qualitative research ................3 Basic types of interviews ................................................. 11
Differences quantitative vs. qualitative research ........3 The tension within interviews ........................................ 11
Combining Qualitative and Quantitative .......................3 Successful interviewing .................................................... 11
Qualitative understanding of reality................................3
Rapport and listening ........................................................ 11
Triangulation...........................................................................3 Interview schedule vs. interview guide........................ 11
Postman on insightful research.........................................4
Interview techniques and responses ............................ 11
Ontology, Epistemology, Methodology Paradigms/
Transcription........................................................................ 12
conceptual orientations in the field of communication
....................................................................................................4
Messiness in qualitative research.....................................4 LECTURE 4: FOCUS GROUPS ................................... 13
Transmission vs. ritual views of communication .........4
Fundamental aspect of qualitative research,
Focus group characteristics............................................. 13
connotative and denotative meaning .............................4
Communication origins of focus groups...................... 13
Collaborating with research participants .......................5
Group effect......................................................................... 13
Steps in the qualitative research planning .....................5
Qualitative research and Big Data ...................................5 Advantages and challenges of focus groups .............. 13
Research tales ........................................................................5 Moderator as facilitator .................................................... 13
Role of the moderator guide ........................................... 13
Principles of ethically sound research.............................5
Setting up a focus group and tips .................................. 14
Informed consent, Deception, Vulnerable people,
Focus group listening and a good moderator ............ 14
Privacy, Data, Respect, Justice..........................................6
Reflexivity................................................................................6 Categories that influence ‘comfort zones’ .................. 14
Types of intrapersonal influences ................................. 15
Types of Interpersonal influences ................................. 15
LECTURE 2: OBSERVATION AND ETHNOGRAPHIC Types of environmental influences ............................... 15
RESEARCH ..................................................................... 7 Means for addressing conflicts ...................................... 15
Positives and negatives for online focus groups....... 15
Ethical aspects of focus group........................................ 15
Qualitative research questions .........................................7 Practical aspects of focus groups .................................. 16
Ethnography and its purposes...........................................7
Role of researcher.................................................................7
Thick descriptions, explicit and tacit culture.................7 LECTURE 5: CASE STUDIES ...................................... 17
Digital ethnography ..............................................................7
Access and participation .....................................................8
Achieving rapport..................................................................8 Case study: definition........................................................ 17
Two roles for giving access ................................................8 What is a case...................................................................... 17
Means/Things for observation..........................................8 Case studies: when and why ........................................... 17
The four types of participant observation.....................8 Training vs. research case studies ................................. 17
Types of cases (Meyer; Farquhar) ................................. 18
Characteristics of autoethnography ................................8
Primary/ secondary data .................................................. 18
Fieldnotes, inscription process, what to include and
Design decisions (Meyer; lecture) ................................. 18
why keep them ......................................................................8
Transparency/ argumentation ........................................ 18
Reflexivity................................................................................9
Ethical aspects of ethnographic research, Triangulation ........................................................................ 19
postmodern ethnographers ...............................................9 Working with multiple sources of data........................ 19
Saturation ................................................................................9 Data analysis: two components ..................................... 19
Strengths and weaknesses of observations ..................9 Strategies for data analysis (Meyer).............................. 19
The role of contradiction ................................................. 19
Strengths & weaknesses of cases studies ................... 20
LECTURE 3: INTERVIEWS AND SAMPLING .......... 10 Strategies for alleviating weaknesses........................... 20
Ethical issues (access) ........................................................ 20
Scientific research and design ........................................ 10
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,LECTURE 6: WORKING WITH MATERIAL & Doing a rhetorical analysis............................................... 26
TEXTUAL DATA & INTRODUCTION TO DATA NARRATIVE ANALYSIS: THEORETICAL FOCUS .................... 27
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION ........................ 21 Narrative: definition .......................................................... 27
Doing a narrative analysis ................................................ 27
SEMIOTICS: THEORETICAL FOCUS..................................... 27
Words and objects as data (meaning-making)........... 21
Semiotics: definition .......................................................... 27
‘Materiality’ of objects ...................................................... 21
Sign, signifier, signified ..................................................... 27
Qualitative textual analysis ............................................. 21 Nature of signs .................................................................... 27
Text/ context(s) .................................................................. 21
(Chain of) signification ...................................................... 27
Format of data .................................................................... 21 When is semiotic analysis useful ................................... 28
Encoding/ decoding .......................................................... 21
Preferred reading ............................................................... 28
Translation ........................................................................... 22 Doing a semiotic analysis ................................................. 28
The three elements of meaning-making ..................... 22 THEMATIC ANALYSIS: THEORETICAL FOCUS ..................... 28
Texts and the construction of reality ........................... 22
Theme .................................................................................... 28
Qualitative vs. quantitative textual analysis (including
Coding and categorizing ................................................... 28
associated concepts) ......................................................... 22
Codebook ............................................................................. 29
Strengths & weakness of qualitative textual analysis Phases of thematic analysis (Braun and Clarke) ........ 29
................................................................................................. 22
Doing a thematic analysis ................................................ 29
Transparency, argumentation & reflexivity in
Strengths and limitations of thematic analysis .......... 29
qualitative textual analysis .............................................. 23
The four steps of the research design (including
associated concepts) ......................................................... 23 LECTURE 8: DATA ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATION
Analysis & interpretation (definitions) ......................... 23 #2 & REPORTING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH........ 30
Raw data ............................................................................... 23
Impact of iterative nature on data analysis &
(CONSTRUCTIVIST) GROUNDED THEORY ......................... 30
interpretation ...................................................................... 23
Contrasts with previous approaches ............................ 30
Role of lit review and theoretical framework in
Situated research................................................................ 30
analysis & interpretation .................................................. 23
Data immersion .................................................................. 24 Coding process.................................................................... 30
Types of coding (+In Vivo coding) ................................. 30
Three tests of data sufficiency (differences between
Theoretical Sampling ......................................................... 30
these) ..................................................................................... 24
Reasons for CGT use ......................................................... 30
Stopping the data collection ........................................... 24
Overwhelming data: three strategies to deal with it24 Writing up the research.................................................... 30
Challenges of analysis....................................................... 24 DISCOURSE ANALYSIS ..................................................... 31
Umbrella term...................................................................... 31
Match method/ type of data .......................................... 24
Relationship to other forms of analysis ....................... 31
Discourse: definition ......................................................... 31
LECTURE 7: DATA ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATION Practical approach.............................................................. 31
#1................................................................................... 25 Spirit of scepticism............................................................. 31
Two ways to overcome DA black box ......................... 31
OTHER STUFF .................................................................. 31
Four dimensions of language/qualitative analysis ... 25
Research writing focus ..................................................... 31
Complementary of analysis methods ........................... 26 Sources of writing tension ............................................... 31
Systematicity and transparency in data analysis ...... 26 Types of audience .............................................................. 32
RHETORICAL ANALYSIS: THEORETICAL FOCUS .................. 26 Shift in criteria for trustworthiness of qualitative
The three pillars of rhetorical analysis ......................... 26 research ................................................................................. 32
Impact of persuasion on audiences .............................. 26
Rhetorical analysis: type of texts................................... 26
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, Lecture 1: Introduction to qualitative research
Principles & features of qualitative research
1. Meaning-making, not numbers: how do people make sense of the world around them?
a. {E} how do Twitter users conceptualise the notion of feminism?
b. {E} how do car advertisements represent female bodies?
2. Complexity, not causality: sees society as messy, complex. Observe phenomenon in natural
context. Capturing the complexity
3. Micro insights, not macro picture: in-depth. Why do individuals do what they do?
4. Different epistemological, ontological, and methodological positions: result in paradigms
a. {E} family: you see a male lion, female lion, and a baby lion. You know it’s a family
because it’s a social construct. “Families are composed by a mother, father, and
children” is the social construction of reality. Highly problematic in quantitative
research because how do you get rid of this idea?
b. Epistemology: how do we know the world? How knowledge is possible. You have
neutral observation or seeing the world through glasses decided by society
c. Ontology: science of existence: how does the world exist? Quan and qual have
different ontologies
d. Different epistemologies and ontologies lead to different approaches
Differences quantitative vs. qualitative research
Quantitative Qualitative
Interested in validity, reliability, Focus on understanding the social construction of reality. This takes
objectivity, and truth place through language. Question often used: How is language used?
Analyses relationships Analyses phenomena in their larger social context. Whenever we look at
between variables language, we’re looking at how it’s used in a larger context (history,
economic, political). Constantly link the data to the wider context
Seen as more objective Seen as more subjective because it involved words & interpretations.
because it involves number Subjectivity is not necessary a problem. Part of a shared repertoire of
thinking. Your peers recognise what you’re doing
Combining Qualitative and Quantitative
“I disagree with the belief that (…) it is easy to mix qualitative and quantitative methods seamlessly.
Instead, I agree with Cliff Christians and James Carey (1989) that there are important differences
between qualitative and quantitative methods that are related to philosophical orientation, cultural
traditions, research values, and priorities as well as specific worldviews or ideological positions. For
me, while it is possible to combine qualitative and quantitative methodologies, the use of mixed
methods should be driven by research questions you ask.”
Qualitative understanding of reality
• {E} Charlie with the lived reality of Fido the dog: Charlie paid money to be told lies about his
sexual prowess (…); Fido is blissfully unaffected. We should be aware that as we use
symbols to construct our own social realities, sometimes those symbols are also using us
• We should consider the notion of transparency (basis for decisions, intentions and
motivations). Then, readers become aware of the potential uses and implications of research
Triangulation
Checking is there’s a match between the data obtained through two methods
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, Postman on insightful research
“The purpose of research is:
• to rediscover the truths in social life;
• to comment on and criticise the moral behaviour of people;
• to put forward metaphors, images, and ideas the can help people live with some measure of
understanding and dignity.”
Ontology, Epistemology, Methodology Paradigms/ conceptual orientations in the field of communication
• Philosophical & methodological: both
• Intellectual maps & models: ideas that orient us in terms of how we see the world and the
possibilities of researching
• Sets of beliefs: beliefs about the nature of the world and knowledge
• Epistemological + ontological positions: tells the researcher how the world exists and how
the world can be studied. They recommend perspectives of how to study the world
Five paradigms in media and communication:
• Predictive: to identify causal relationships and predict how these relationships will look
o Positivism
o Post-positivism
• Descriptive
o Constructivism: the social world is constructed through interaction
o Critical tradition: concept of power; in the process of symbols
o Participatory/ cooperative inquiry: researchers work in collaboration with the
participants. Together, they build the research design, execute research, and analyse
results
Paradigms and methodology/ methods:
• Methodology: science of methods. How to collect and interpret data of the social world.
How can methods be applied, what are the (dis)advantages?
• Methods: for data analysis and collection
Messiness in qualitative research
The messiness of the interconnections, inconsistencies, and seemingly illogical input we reap in
qualitative research demands that we embrace the tangles of our conversations by conducting
analyses close to the source
Transmission vs. ritual views of communication
1. Message transmission: communication in a linear way. Sender to receiver
2. Transaction model of communication: communication is a ritual. Knowing the norms of
society and following them. Involves meaning-making and socially shared symbols.
Researcher is part of the process
a. {E} greetings: in the US you greed each other with a handshake but in other
countries you hug or bow or give a pat on the back
Fundamental aspect of qualitative research, connotative and denotative meaning
• Insightful: how institutions function, how individuals react. In-depth way
• Complex: we take for granted that the social world is complex. Trying to understand the
different layers like power and gender
• Emancipatory: participation, structural imbalances. Address inequalities. Trying to make
some kind of change
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