Sport and performance psychology
Lecture 1: General introduction, mental toughness, and motivation
● Introducing sport psychology (Chapter 1, pp. 3-44) – Moran & Toner (2017)
● Defining the practice of sport and performance psychology – Portenga et al (2017)
● Self‐Determination Theory in sport and exercise (Chapter 3, pp. 37-56) – Standage & Ryan (2020)
● Social media in sport (Chapter 13, pp. 153-164) – Ruser & Steinfeldt (2022)
● Meaning and meaninglessness in elite sports (Chapter 3, pp. 31-44) – Beckmann (2023)
Lecture 2: Perfectionism, goals and self-efficacy
● Perfectionism in sport, dance, and exercise (Chapter 7, pp. 121-157) – Hill et al (2020)
● Achievement goals and self-regulation in the sport context (Chapter 30, pp. 589-606) – Van Yperen
(2021)
● The application of Goal Setting Theory to goal setting interventions in sport: A systematic review –
Jeong et al. (2021)
● Efficacy beliefs in physical activity settings (Chapter 4, pp. 57-80) – Jackson et al (2020)
Lecture 3: Mental health, emotions, and focus
● Stress in elite sport – Hobson et al. (2023)
● Mental health in athletes (Chapter 1, pp. 3-11) – Nixdorf et al (2023)
● Emotion and sport performance – (Chapter 13, pp. 254-298) – Janelle et al. (2020)
● Staying focused in sport (Chapter 5, pp. 184-233) – Moran & Toner (2017)
● Optimizing attentional focus (Chapter 31, pp. 653-665) – Wulf & Lewthwaite (2020)
Lecture 4: Psychological skills training
● Dare to prepare for reality: Helping national orienteering team athletes handle adversity – Henriksen
(2018)
● Helping athletes make good decisions (Chapter 2, pp. 19-34) – Reinebo et al (2019)
● Performance profiling – Bird et al (2021)
● Self-Talk and emotions in sport (Chapter 11, pp. 120-130) – Fritsch et al (2021)
● From simulation to motor execution – Guillot et al (2021)
● The efficacy of psychological skills training – Lange-Smith et al (2023)
Lecture 5: Expertise development and talent selection
● What Lies Beneath the Surface: Investigating Expertise in Sport (Chapter 7, pp. 271-317) – Moran &
Toner (2017)
● Talent Selection: Making Decisions and Prognoses about Athletes (Chapter 4, pp. 50-65) – Lath et al.
(2020)
Lecture 6: Team dynamics
● Psychology of group dynamics – Beauchamp et al (2020) (Chapter 15, pp. 338-323)
● Team confidence in sports – Fransen et al (2017)
● The social influence of emotions within sports teams (Chapter 5, pp. 49-57) – Friesen et al (2021)
Lecture 7: New directions: Psychological momentum and resilience
● Psychological momentum in football: the impact of a last-minute equalizer in a knock-out match – Den
Hartigh et al. (2020)
● Resilience in sports: a multidisciplinary, dynamic, and personalized perspective – Den Hartigh et al.
(2022)
,Lecture 1 (5) (General introduction, mental toughness, and motivation)
1. Introducing sport psychology (Chapter 1, pp. 3-44) – Moran & Toner (2017)
Introduction
Until recently, the idea that athletes have a story to tell in order to make sense of
their existence has attracted little research attention. However, with the emergence of a new
research method called narrative inquiry in sport psychology, a tool is now available by
which to elicit and analyze the “stories” of athletes’ lives.
Research on the “peak performance” experiences of athletes indicate that mental
toughness and the ability to concentrate effectively are among the factors which distinguish
top athletes from less successful counterparts.
The mental side of sport
Sport scientists typically distinguish between 4 hypothetical aspects of athletic performance:
1) Physical: refer to phenomena such as fitness, strength and stamina which can be
measured objectively.
2) Technical: the proficiency with which athletes can execute fundamental skills
required by their specialist sport.
3) Tactical: concerns strategic aspects of athletic performance (including skills like
planning and decision making).
4) Psychological
What is confidence?
When we discover from Bandura’s (1997) theory of self efficacy that confidence is
essentially a belief, then we can understand why it may vary significantly from one context to
another. According to Bandura, self-efficacy is the belief that one has the capacity to
“execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments” – or, put simply, to
achieve a specific goal. This “I can do it” belief, however, is not all pervasive but actually
situation-specific. And because confidence is largely belief-based rather than fact-based, it
requires constant replenishment. In summary, self-confidence is a vital yet fragile ingredient
of athletic success.
What is mental toughness? Meaning and measurement
Typically, the term mental toughness is used as a synonym for determination,
resilience and/or an exceptional immunity to pressure situations.
Two key themes emerge from empirical studies of this construct. 1) mental
toughness is widely regarded as the key to sporting success; 2) little agreement exists about
what the construct itself actually means – or about what theoretical mechanisms underlie it.
Results of a study of Connaughton et al. (2008) indicated that their athletes believed
that mental toughness develops as a long term outcome of a complex range of interacting
factors. Among these factors was a motivational climate surrounding the athlete’s training
that was challenging yet enjoyable.
Clough et al. (2002) postulated 4 key components of mental toughness in their 4Cs
model of this construct: 1) control; 2) challenge; 3) commitment; 4) confidence. The authors
devised a measure called the Mental Toughness Questionnaire, which requires respondents
to use a 5-point Likert scale, with the following psychometric data: a reliability coefficient
,of r=0.90 and construct validity data based on predicted relationships with constructs like
self-efficacy.
The meta-data analysis on the study of Anthony et al. revealed 4 key categories or
features evident in mentally tough athletes: 1) personal characteristics; 2) interactions within
the environment; 3) progressive development (training in an environment that fosters
independence but also provides necessary support); 4) breadth of experience (diverse
experiences/events that facilitate adaptive and positive growth).
Developing your critical thinking skills
Few of us are skilled at critical thinking: the ability and willingness to evaluate
claims (whether in science or in everyday life) in an open-minded and careful manner.
Moran et al. (2006) argued that critical thinking comprises a motivational component
(i.e. a disposition to engage in analytical thinking) and a cognitive component (i.e. a set of
questioning and reasoning skills). The motivation to engage in critical thinking is
characterized by the adoption of open-mindedness, inquisitiveness and skepticism.
However, these characteristics must be supplemented by a “toolbox” of cognitive skills such
as analysis, evaluation, inference, deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning.
6 Steps in critical thinking:
1) Interpret or establish the credibility of a source of information and ask “what exactly
is the claim/idea/conclusion that I am being asked to believe and who or what is the
source of the claim?”
2) Analyze a source by asking “what type of evidence is used to support the main
argument or central claims?” (according to Forshaw (2012) an author’s argument
generally falls into one of 3 camps; it is based on fact, theory or faith).
3) Evaluate the information/evidence used by an author to reach his conclusions by
asking “how valid is the evidence cited? What type of evidence would go
against/reject the claim/idea being proposed?” (to establish the validity and reliability)
4) Use inference to establish whether there are alternative explanations for the
evidence provided (and determine the plausibility of these rival theories).
5) Explanation: determine the most likely conclusion based on available evidence.
6) Self-regulation: consolidate what you know by establishing links between what you
have learnt and other fields of knowledge/relevant material.
What factors influence the mental demands of a given sport?
Sport psychology as an academic discipline
Sport psychology: can be defined as the application of psychological theory and methods
to understand the performance, mental processes and well-being of people who are involved
in sport.
Empirical research on mental aspects of athletic performance is at least as old as
psychology itself (Triplett (1898) with his social facilitation theory based on his cycling
studies). However, the field of sport psychology is difficult to define precisely, partly due to
the twin-track identity of the discipline (it is regarded as a subfield of mainstream psychology
but also as one of the sport sciences). Despite this semantic difficulty of defining the
discipline precisely, 3 characteristics of sport psychology are noteworthy: 1) it is generally
regarded as a science; 2) it is not just about sport -it involves the study of exercise as well as
of competitive athletic behavior; 3) it is a profession as well as a science.
, A brief history of sport and exercise psychology
Sport psychologist Coleman Griffith has established the first sport psychology research
facility, called the Athletic Research Laboratory (US, 1925, University of Illinois) and is seen
as the progenitor of this discipline. During the 1960s sport psychology emerged as an
independent discipline. But within mainstream academic psychology, formal recognition of
the burgeoning subfield of sport psychology was slow to arrive (Division 47 (Exercise and
Sport Psychology) was established in 1986 by the APA).
Research methods in sport psychology
One way of classifying techniques used is to distinguish between quantitative and
qualitative research methods. Grounded theory: a qualitative research method whereby a
researcher attempts to develop a theory of a phenomenon from the analysis of a set of
qualitative data derived from people’s experience of that phenomenon.
Another way is to distinguish between descriptive research (e.g. case study,
naturalistic observation, survey research, psychometric testing), correlational research and
experimental research.
A research design that is attracting increasing attention in sport and performance
psychology is the single-case research design. These designs are a group of quasi-
experimental methods that grew out of attempts in the applied behavior analysis tradition to
understand an individual’s behavior -especially his/her response to an intervention
programme. They can be used to study the effect, time course, or variability of an IV on
some designated DV. Used for both theoretical reasons and practical reasons.
Sport psychology as a profession
What type of work do sport psychologists actually do?
Typically, the professional activities of sport psychologists fall into 3 main categories:
1) Applied consultancy work (including advice on performance enhancement as well as
the provision of counseling and clinical psychology services);
2) Education (teaching students, athletes, coaches, business people about the principles,
methods and findings of sport psychology (e.g. team spirit, mental skills like goal-setting);
3) Research.
Caution: there is considerable overlap between categories and most sport psychologists
work part-time in this field.
What is the best way to deliver sport psychology services to athletes and coaches?
How can I qualify professionally as a sport psychologist?
Where can I learn more about sport psychology?
Current status of sport psychology: respect or skepticism?
2. Defining the practice of sport and performance psychology - Portenga et al.
(2017)
Abstract
25 years after the formation of both the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport
