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Summary On Democracy by Dahl & Shapiro (2015)
Summary On democracy by Dahl & Shapiro
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Voorbeeld 2 van de 15 pagina's
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On Democracy (2nd edition) by Robert A. Dahl & Ian ShapiroChapter 1: Do we really need a guide?
In the 20th century democracy must virtually grand every adult citizen the right to vote. Before
1918 about half of the population in many countries was denied this and they were thus excluded
from full citizenship (women). If democracy has had different meanings in different times, how
can we agree on what it means today? How democratic is democracy in countries we call
democratic today?
Chapter 2: Where and how did democracy develop?
It has been invented more than once. Dahl assumes it can be independently invented and
reinvented whenever the appropriate conditions exist. And these have existed in different times
and places. Maybe even before recorded history (certain tribes). After settling down this natural
political system made place for a new natural: hierarchy like monarchies, despotisms,
aristocracies or oligarchies.
The Mediterranean
Around 500 B.C.E. in classical Greece and Rome systems of government providing for popular
participation by a substantial number of citizens were established on foundations so solid, that
they endured for centuries. Greece had its city-states. The Greeks coined the term democracy,
demos: people and kratos: to rule. Athens had an assembly in which all citizens were entitled to
participate. They elected a few key officials (like generals). But the main way of selecting
citizens for public duties was by a lottery among eligible citizens. The Romans chose to call their
system a republic, res: thing or affair and publicus: public. A thing that belonged to the people.
At first it was restricted to patricians or aristocrats, but later the common people (men only, just
as in Athens) gained entry. Conquered peoples were giving full Roman citizenship but due to the
enormous distances among them and the forum being in Rome, in practice many people were
denied their rights. Democracy ended with the dictatorship of Julius Caesar. In Italy at around
1100 C.E. democracy began to reemerge in certain cities. First participation was restricted to
upper-class families, but in time middle classes began to demand their right to vote. It ended
again around the mid 1300’s by forces like economic decline, corruption, etc.
Northern Europe
The mentioned democracies or republics all lacked several characteristics of modern
representative government. They missed three main aspects:
1. A national parliament
2. Consisting of elected representatives
3. And popularly chosen local governments subordinate to national government
This combination originated in Britain, Scandinavia, the Lowlands, Switzerland and elsewhere in
northern Europe.
, By 900 C.E. assemblies (Tings) of free Vikings were meeting around Scandinavia. Here they
settled disputes, discussed, accepted and rejected laws: adopted or turned down a religion and
even elected or gave their approval to a king. Equality only applied to free men (like in Rome,
ancient Greece, and even later Europeans and Americans). Above slaves were free men,
followed by nobles, followed by the king (bound by the ting). The influence of free men
however, was strong enough to last through the centuries. When the Vikings ventured into
Iceland they created more than just a Ting, they created an Althing, a national assembly. In
Sweden the king in the fifteenth began to summon meetings of representatives from all manner
of sectors of Swedish society. This evolved into the Riskdag, or parliament. In the Netherlands
and Flanders, middle classes commanded sizable economic wealth and could no longer be
ignored when rulers were starved on resources. They could no longer be taxed without breaking
consent so meetings of representatives were held. In England parliament grew out of assemblies
summoned sporadically during the reign of Edward I from 1272 to 1307. This evolved to a
system of checks and balances in which parliament consisted of the house of lords and the house
of commons were limited by and limited in itself the King. Laws enacted by these two were
interpreted by independent judges.
Democratization: On the way, but only on the way
Favored by local conditions and opportunities in several areas of Europe, the logic of
equality stimulated the creation of local assemblies in which free men could participate in
governing, at least to an extent. The idea that governments needed the consent of the governed
was initially a claim about taxes, but grew into a claim about laws in general. In areas too large
for assemblies, consent required representation. Still inequalities among people posed enormous
obstacles to democracy. Second parliaments had only minimal voice as opposed to kings. Third
representatives did not represent all the people. Fourth, democratic ideas and beliefs were not
widely shared or well understood, speech and press freedom were highly restricted.
Chapter 3: What lies ahead?
There is a difference between democracy as an ideal and democracy as an actuality. This
difference is often ignored when speaking about democracy. One could be in favor of democracy
as a way of governance, but be skeptic about how it is practiced in their own government.
Chapter 4: What is democracy?
Criteria for a democratic process
Dahl identifies five standards to which governing an association should adhere, for all members
to be able to participate equally in the association’s decisions about its policies:
1. Effective participation: before policy is adopted, all members should have been able to
assert their views of what the policy should be
2. Voting equality: every member should have an equal opportunity to vote, and all votes
should be counted equal
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