Vital democracy by Frank Hendriks
Chapter 1: Plural Democracy: Variations on a theme
How democracy revived
Plato: democracy is a bad thing. Huntington distinguishes between three major waves of
democratization and their counter-movements:
- First wave (1828-1926), more citizens got the right to vote
o Counter-movement (1922-1942), totalitarianism
- Second wave (1943-1962)
o Counter-movement (1958-1974)
- Third wave (1975-present)
After the rise and fall of the Athenian and Roman democracies/republics, democracy was
rediscovered in several Italian city-states around 1100 A.D. However there was no form of
national democratic government.
10 advantages of democracy by Dahl:
1. Prevention of tyranny
2. Protection of essential rights
3. Guarantee of freedom
4. Self-protection
5. Self-determination
6. Moral autonomy
7. Human development
8. Restriction of inequality
9. Peace keeping
10. Creation of prosperity
What democracy entails
Every definition somehow specifies rule by the people, either direct or through representation. It
also holds a notion of equality. In essence democracy is about popular influence on government
and equality in exercising such influence. A general definition: Democracy is a political system
in which citizens govern, either by themselves or through others that are elected, and controlled
by the people, in a way that puts each citizen on a par with every other.
Dahl defines the ideal democracy:
- Effective participation
- Equality in voting
- Enlightened understanding
- Final control over the agenda
- Inclusion of adults
,He also defines minimal requirements, which are more realistic (polyarchy):
- Elected officials
- Free, fair and frequent elections
- Alternative sources of information
- Freedom of expression
- Freedom of assembly, associational autonomy
- Inclusive citizenship
How democracy is modeled
2 dimensions will lead to 4 models of democracy. These dimensions are:
- Aggregative vs. integrative democracy: how are decisions taken?
o Aggregative: majoritarian, simple majority of 50% + 1
o Integrative: deliberative, reaching the widest agreement
- Direct vs. indirect democracy: who is taking the decisions?
o Direct: members of the community, the people (self-governance)
o Indirect: elected representatives
This leads to 4 basic models of democracy:
1. Pendulum democracy: political power alternates between two parties (like the
Westminster model). It is fundamentally indirect and representative. People cast votes
and hand of decisions making to elected representatives. It is largely majoritarian and
aggregative: the winner takes all.
2. Voter democracy: aggregative and direct. Citizens participate by casting their votes in
plebiscites, like town-meetings or referenda.
3. Participatory democracy: self-governance and integrative decision-making combined.
Minorities cannot simply be overruled, but have to be included. Decision-making is done
through lengthy deliberations to seek consensus. Widespread participation is needed.
There is no ultimatum or veto
4. Consensus democracy: indirect and integrative. Representatives of groups and sections
of the population are primary decision-makers. They seek consensus among themselves.
Decision-making usually takes place in co-producing, co-governing etc. The majority
preferably does not overrule substantial minorities by simply counting heads.
Aggregative Integrative
Indirect Pendulum democracy Consensus democracy
Direct Voter democracy Participatory democracy
, Chapter 2: Layered democracy: Expressions and foundations
Introduction
The before mentioned models are all ideals of democracy and will always need polishing.
Pure democracy Impure democracy
Participatory democracy Direct and integrative Indirect and aggregative
Voter democracy Direct and aggregative Indirect and integrative
Pendulum democracy Indirect and aggregative Direct and integrative
Consensus democracy Indirect and integrative Direct and aggregative
For expressions of the different models see page 33.
Democracy and political culture
Democratic ethos:
- Protectionist democracy: voter democracy, based on values of self-determination.
General emphasis on individual freedom and rights. Protectionists favor voter democracy
for equality, in the way that governors are equal to citizens. From this same perspective
however it also has a drawback: Individual citizens can simply be outvoted by a 50% + 1
majority.
- Grassroots democracy: participatory democracy flourishes in such a system. It is
characterized by openness, commitment, equality, solidarity, fellowship, small scale etc.
everyone deserves equal attention. Decision making by an elite is neither justified nor
democratic in Habermas’ approach.
- Guardian democracy: close to model of consensus. Trust is put into the expert caretakers
(guardians or regents). A certain part of the elite is legitimized to take decisions based on
general elections. The culture is one of pacification and accommodation, deliberation etc.
Issues are far too complex for ordinary citizens.
- Mass democracy: more competition between elites, like in a pendulum democracy.
Political movements need to gather mass, especially in general elections. The winner
takes all.
These can be summarized on two dimensions:
- Power distance vs. power equality: all count equally (protectionist: citizens stand up for
own interests) (grassroots: participants have to get along), or all have a distinct
responsibility (mass: politicians vis-à-vis the voting mass) (guardian: professional agents
vis-à-vis those they represent)
- Contest or convergence: choosing one and turning down another (mass: 1 or 2)
(protectionist: proposition A or B), or convergence and accommodation (guardian: elite
collaboration) (grassroots: bottom-up consensus)
Contest (weeding out) Convergence (melting
Chapter 1: Plural Democracy: Variations on a theme
How democracy revived
Plato: democracy is a bad thing. Huntington distinguishes between three major waves of
democratization and their counter-movements:
- First wave (1828-1926), more citizens got the right to vote
o Counter-movement (1922-1942), totalitarianism
- Second wave (1943-1962)
o Counter-movement (1958-1974)
- Third wave (1975-present)
After the rise and fall of the Athenian and Roman democracies/republics, democracy was
rediscovered in several Italian city-states around 1100 A.D. However there was no form of
national democratic government.
10 advantages of democracy by Dahl:
1. Prevention of tyranny
2. Protection of essential rights
3. Guarantee of freedom
4. Self-protection
5. Self-determination
6. Moral autonomy
7. Human development
8. Restriction of inequality
9. Peace keeping
10. Creation of prosperity
What democracy entails
Every definition somehow specifies rule by the people, either direct or through representation. It
also holds a notion of equality. In essence democracy is about popular influence on government
and equality in exercising such influence. A general definition: Democracy is a political system
in which citizens govern, either by themselves or through others that are elected, and controlled
by the people, in a way that puts each citizen on a par with every other.
Dahl defines the ideal democracy:
- Effective participation
- Equality in voting
- Enlightened understanding
- Final control over the agenda
- Inclusion of adults
,He also defines minimal requirements, which are more realistic (polyarchy):
- Elected officials
- Free, fair and frequent elections
- Alternative sources of information
- Freedom of expression
- Freedom of assembly, associational autonomy
- Inclusive citizenship
How democracy is modeled
2 dimensions will lead to 4 models of democracy. These dimensions are:
- Aggregative vs. integrative democracy: how are decisions taken?
o Aggregative: majoritarian, simple majority of 50% + 1
o Integrative: deliberative, reaching the widest agreement
- Direct vs. indirect democracy: who is taking the decisions?
o Direct: members of the community, the people (self-governance)
o Indirect: elected representatives
This leads to 4 basic models of democracy:
1. Pendulum democracy: political power alternates between two parties (like the
Westminster model). It is fundamentally indirect and representative. People cast votes
and hand of decisions making to elected representatives. It is largely majoritarian and
aggregative: the winner takes all.
2. Voter democracy: aggregative and direct. Citizens participate by casting their votes in
plebiscites, like town-meetings or referenda.
3. Participatory democracy: self-governance and integrative decision-making combined.
Minorities cannot simply be overruled, but have to be included. Decision-making is done
through lengthy deliberations to seek consensus. Widespread participation is needed.
There is no ultimatum or veto
4. Consensus democracy: indirect and integrative. Representatives of groups and sections
of the population are primary decision-makers. They seek consensus among themselves.
Decision-making usually takes place in co-producing, co-governing etc. The majority
preferably does not overrule substantial minorities by simply counting heads.
Aggregative Integrative
Indirect Pendulum democracy Consensus democracy
Direct Voter democracy Participatory democracy
, Chapter 2: Layered democracy: Expressions and foundations
Introduction
The before mentioned models are all ideals of democracy and will always need polishing.
Pure democracy Impure democracy
Participatory democracy Direct and integrative Indirect and aggregative
Voter democracy Direct and aggregative Indirect and integrative
Pendulum democracy Indirect and aggregative Direct and integrative
Consensus democracy Indirect and integrative Direct and aggregative
For expressions of the different models see page 33.
Democracy and political culture
Democratic ethos:
- Protectionist democracy: voter democracy, based on values of self-determination.
General emphasis on individual freedom and rights. Protectionists favor voter democracy
for equality, in the way that governors are equal to citizens. From this same perspective
however it also has a drawback: Individual citizens can simply be outvoted by a 50% + 1
majority.
- Grassroots democracy: participatory democracy flourishes in such a system. It is
characterized by openness, commitment, equality, solidarity, fellowship, small scale etc.
everyone deserves equal attention. Decision making by an elite is neither justified nor
democratic in Habermas’ approach.
- Guardian democracy: close to model of consensus. Trust is put into the expert caretakers
(guardians or regents). A certain part of the elite is legitimized to take decisions based on
general elections. The culture is one of pacification and accommodation, deliberation etc.
Issues are far too complex for ordinary citizens.
- Mass democracy: more competition between elites, like in a pendulum democracy.
Political movements need to gather mass, especially in general elections. The winner
takes all.
These can be summarized on two dimensions:
- Power distance vs. power equality: all count equally (protectionist: citizens stand up for
own interests) (grassroots: participants have to get along), or all have a distinct
responsibility (mass: politicians vis-à-vis the voting mass) (guardian: professional agents
vis-à-vis those they represent)
- Contest or convergence: choosing one and turning down another (mass: 1 or 2)
(protectionist: proposition A or B), or convergence and accommodation (guardian: elite
collaboration) (grassroots: bottom-up consensus)
Contest (weeding out) Convergence (melting
