WEEK 1
The field of Communication Ethics is more than 2,5 thousand years old
What is ethics?
• Behavioural science concerned with reflection on morality, the set of values, norms and
rules that regulate behaviour based on a point of view of what does and does not belong
in a particular social context, and what is right or wrong.
• Reflecting on the question: which action is most justifiable in a given situation?
Ethics vs. Morals
Ethics
• Ethics or moral philosophy is the study of right and wrong
• Ethos = character (of the sender) as manifested in attitude (towards the world)
• Ethics is the process of finding rational justifications for our actions when
simultaneously held values come into conflict (Plaisance)
• Refer to the value judgements we make on bigger or smaller matters in communication
as well as in other fields
• This is best examined in —> Tragic choices —> Ethics begins when elements of a
moral system conflict (Deni Elliot)
• About how we deal with grey areas
• Rules provided by an external source, they are governed by professional and legal
guidelines within a particular time and place
• Ethical code —> example of ethical conduct at work —> The Society of Professional
Journalists Code of Ethics is a good example —> several principles of ethical
journalism are included = with instructions on how to behave as an objective,
transparent, and reliable journalist —> principles such as —> seek truth and report it,
minimise harm for sources, subjects, colleagues, and member of the public
• Ethical dilemma —> There must be a clear conflict of values —> Not killing is an
example of moral acting, but not a dilemma. —> Plagiarism is prohibited, so whether
or not to commit plagiarism is not an ethical dilemma, but simply wrong. —> Ex. of a
transparency vs. privacy dilemma = journalists must be transparent (clear about
sources), but at the same time also have to deal with privacy considerations to protect
their sources. What is more important?
Morals
• Refers to a system of beliefs that we use to make judgment about good and bad
• Individual’s own principles regarding right and wrong
• For example —> a journalist may exaggerate a little to create a more sensational story
• These principles are not written in legal guidelines, but are subject to one’s own gut
feelings about what is good or bad
• Most decisions are not captured in a code of conduct, but ask for people’s personal
cultural norms for dealing with issues —> trust your own moral compass
,Reasons to act morally responsible
• Collective reasons —> Efficiency, Human need
• Individual reasons —> Respect, Meaning / Purpose
Difference between Values and Norms
Values
• Ideals, motives that should be followed based on the idea that one should do the right
thing (e.g. transparency)
4 value domains
• Personal values = respect, equity, integrity, reliability, peace of mind, prudence, strong
imagination
• Professional values = expertise, accuracy, reliability, integrity
• Organisational values = quality, quantity, customer satisfaction
• Public values = justice, durability, freedom, solidarity
Norms
• Concrete codes of conduct, guidelines for action (e.g. You must not lie)
Idealism vs Relativism
• Idealism = the extent to which you believe that the best outcomes always result if broad,
humanitarian goals drive actions
• Relativism = the extent to which individuals endorse an individualistic approach –
reject the possibility that there are universal moral standards that can help solve all
ethical questions
Plato 427- 347 BC.
• The ethical dilemma
• Wrote philosophical dialogues about Socrates and the cup of poison
• Be true to yourself —> ethics starts with the character of the sender
• Form' theory: there exist an absolute truth that is reflected by nature (absolute good vs.
evil) —> in essence everyone is good
• Epistemology is the search for that truth
Not only Evil VS. Good
• Ethics is about everyday choices
• Social norms are part of ethical field
• Not moral issues that have a clear good and evil side to the story...but ethical
consideration, in which moral values come into conflict with each other and a tragic
choice has to be made
,Who is ethically responsible?
• The actor —> everyone who can take some action and have some sort of ethical
responsibility —> a main actor —> everyone who has some power, bears some
responsibility
• Criterion of power: everyone who is in a position to exert influence on an individual,
group or an organization
• Personal responsibility: everyone makes ethical decisions regarding their own
actions —> there is no collective responsibility —> you can only decide for yourself —
> you do not have power over others
• Organizations are groups of (individual) people with freedom to act —> everyone has
freedom to act as he wants to, only they have to accept the consequences
• The bearing witness principle: according to some philosophers, everyone, even if we
do not have the power to change a situation, has the moral duty to witness immoral
actions
Normative approach
• Approach with a value judgement —> normative
• All about what ought to be
• Study of principles, rules or theories that guide our actions and judgements in order to
determine what actually is morally right or wrong
• Formulating basic principles and criteria —> the different currents within ethics
• Prescriptive —> stating how it should be —> guiding and explaining behaviour
• Question —> is this a task of scientists?
Non-normative approach
• Describing and understanding the actual moral behavior
• Not to judge, but to consider
• The essential question is —> what do people think is right in a certain place, time or
situation?
• Concerned with what is
• Comparative ethics
• Descriptive —> describing how it actually is
• The scientist as an observer
• Scientific study of moral beliefs and practices of different people and cultures in various
places and times, in order to describe how people behave and think when dealing with
moral issues and arguments
• According to many, scientists should use this approach
Example in terms of Communication
• Descriptive ethics —> used when determining what proportion of tabloid journalists
believe that there is no problem to invade the personal privacy of celebrities in order to
boost sales
• Prescriptive ethics —> used to determine whether it is correct to hold such a belief
, How do you lead a successful life?
• Plato and Socrates —> If you want to lead a successful life, you have to understand
yourself —> ethic is science about you —> what you see as important
• We as people are very complex —> we can find ourselves in different situations and
different roles
Three ethical perspectives
1. Virtues —> Character (I wasn't myself for a moment)
Aristotele (384 BC. - 322 BC.)
Ethica Nicomachea: first systematic account of virtue theory
• This round of ethics focuses on the role of virtues and the character of a person
• It has its origins in Ancient Greek philosophy in the thought of Socrates, Plato and
Aristotle
• Reason is required for living a virtuous life (ethical life)
• A virtue, may be considered a character trait, but its more than that —> it is entrenched
in the mindset of a person
• A virtue = an acquired human quality that enables us to achieve internal good
• Every person has virtues —> a key question of virtue ethics is how to mold individual
character based on model of virtue —> how can we become a good person?
• Focused on two types of virtues —> intellectual and moral
• Virtues are visible in the considerations one has when taking an action, which is
different from using, for example the ontological rules and ethical behaviour —> a
courageous person is one that values courage —> not because they say to do, but
because they take considerations regarding courage into account when thinking about
what to do in a certain situation —> a courageous person tries to strike a balance
between being reckless and cowardly
• In search of a balance: Doctrine of the mean (the middle path)
• Virtuous behaviour is about finding a balance between excess and efficiency depending
on the situation
• Every situation has an ethical dilemma and in order to solve that situation, we need to
go in between
• Practical wisdom —> comes with life experience helps a virtuous person while making
such decisions —> it helps us to reason in a good way
• Why would we want to reason in a good way? —> Aristotle’s answer is Eudamonia =
living well, welfare or human flourishing —> Eudamonia is the highest end of human
life
• Community (in Politics) —> we are not in this world alone, we have a responsibility to
our fellow men —> sometimes, something that is good for community, is not good for
ourselves
• Alasdair MacIntyre (virtue ethicist) —> virtuous behaviour applies to society as a
whole —> a life well lived contributes to a flourishing society —> so if our characters
reflect virtues, we will not only serve ourselves as it is also essential and beneficial to
society as a whole
• MacIntyre identifies:
