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Samenvatting "PB1602181944-Onderzoekspracticum Kwalitatief onderzoek" | juni 2019 | Jasper Verkroost 1
,Thema 1: De theorie van kwalitatief onderzoek ......... 4 1.5.4 Verwerkingsopdracht "Samplematrix" ....... 38
1.1 Theoretische inbedding ....................................... 4 Thema 2: Kwalitatief onderzoek in de praktijk ......... 40
1. The Foundations of Qualitative Research ......... 4 2.1 Diepte interviews voorbereiden ........................ 40
1.1 The nature of qualitative research ............. 4 6. Designing Fieldwork ........................................ 40
1.2 Key philosophical issues in social research . 5 6.2 Designing topic guides .............................. 40
1.3 Positivism and the scientific method .......... 6 2.1.1 Verwerkingsopdracht "Topic Lists" ............ 43
1.4 Key developments and traditions in 2.2 Diepte interviews uitvoeren .............................. 44
qualitative research .......................................... 8 7. In-depth interviews ......................................... 44
Digitale werkboek ................................................... 10 7.1 Perspectives on the interview ................... 44
1.1.1 Verwerkingsopdracht 'Theoretische 7.2 Forms and features of in-depth
inbedding van kwalitatief onderzoek .................. 12 interviews ....................................................... 46
1.2 Wanneer kwalitatief onderzoek? ...................... 13 7.3 The stages of an interview ........................ 48
1.2.1 Verwerkingsopdracht "Wanneer kwalitatief 2.2.1 Verwerkingsopdracht "Soorten diepte
onderzoek te gebruiken" .................................... 15 interviews" .......................................................... 49
1.2.2 Verwerkingsopdracht "Wanneer kwalitatief 2.2.2 Verwerkingsopdracht "Voor- en nadelen" . 50
onderzoek te gebruiken" .................................... 15
7.4 Formulating questions to achieve breath
1.2.3 Verwerkingsopdracht "Wanneer kwalitatief and depth ........................................................ 52
onderzoek te gebruiken" .................................... 15
7.5 Supporting the interview dynamic ............ 54
1.3 Onderzoeksvragen, design, methoden ............. 17
7.6 Responding to challenging situations in
3. Design issues ................................................... 17 interviews ....................................................... 56
3.1 Defining the research question ................ 17 7.7 Practical considerations ............................ 57
3.2 Choosing a data collection method .......... 18 2.2.3 Verwerkingsopdracht "Diepte interview
1.3.1 Verwerkingsopdracht "Onderzoeksvragen, afnemen"............................................................. 58
design, methoden" ............................................. 22 2.3 Transcriberen en coderen.................................. 60
1.3.2 Verwerkingsopdracht "Onderzoeksvragen, 10. Analysis: Principles and Processes ................ 60
design, methoden" ............................................. 22
10.1 Traditions and approaches ..................... 60
1.4 Ethiek bij kwalitatief onderzoek ........................ 24
10.2 The analytic journey ................................ 64
1.4.1 Verwerkingsopdracht "Onderzoeksvragen,
10.3 A question of terminology ...................... 64
design, methoden" ............................................. 28
10.4 Formal analysis ....................................... 65
1.5 Steekproeven .................................................... 29
10.5 Data management - an overview ............ 66
1.5.1 Verwerkingsopdracht "Populatie" ............. 31
10.6 Abstraction and interpretation - an
1.5.2 Verwerkingsopdracht "Steekproeven" ...... 31
overview ......................................................... 67
5. Designing and Selecting Samples .................... 32
10.7 Routes through the analytical process.... 68
5.3 Study populations and sample frames ..... 32
2.3.2 Verwerkingsopdracht "Data-analyse" ........ 69
5.4 Stages in designing a purposive sample ... 34
2.3.3 Verwerkingsopdracht "Coderen" ............... 71
5.5 Implementing the sample design ............. 36
2.3.4 Verwerkingsopdracht "Coderen" ............... 71
1.5.3 Verwerkingsopdracht "Steekproef
2.4 Diepte-interviews rapporteren .......................... 72
onderwerpen" ..................................................... 37
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Samenvatting "PB1602181944-Onderzoekspracticum Kwalitatief onderzoek" | juni 2019 | Jasper Verkroost 2
, 13. Writing up qualitative research .................... 72 6.2 De praktijk van cognitieve interviews ................ 97
13.1 Qualitative research outputs .................. 72 Reader "Cognitive Interviewing: A 'How To'
Guide" - Gordon B. Willis .................................... 97
13.2 Challenges in reporting qualitative data. 73
13.3 Writing up qualitative research findings 74 1. Background: Cognitive Interviewing
Techniques ...................................................... 97
2.4.1 Verwerkingsopdracht "Rapportage" .......... 79
2. Cognitive Theory ......................................... 98
Reader: Consolidated criteria for reporting
3. Cognitive Interviewing Methods: Think-Aloud
qualitative research (COREQ): a 32-item
and Verbal Probing ......................................... 99
checklist for interviews and focus groups ...... 80
2.4.2 Verwerkingsopdracht "Rapportage: 6.2.1 Verwerkingsopdracht "Beck Depression
Inventory" ......................................................... 102
Pressures to perform" ......................................... 83
Thema 5: Observeren ............................................... 85 5. Detection of Structural Problems in Survey
Questions ...................................................... 103
5.1 De theorie van observeren ................................ 85
6. The Sequence of Cognitive Interviewing
9. Observation ..................................................... 85 Activities........................................................ 103
9.1 The nature of observational evidence ...... 85 7. Practical Aspects of Cognitive
9.2 Choosing observation as a method .......... 87 Interviewing .................................................. 104
9.3 Collecting observation data ...................... 88 8. Interviewing Logistics ................................ 106
9.4 Recording observation data ..................... 89 9. Evaluation of the effectiveness of cognitive
interviewing .................................................. 110
9.5 Internet observation ................................. 91
6.2.2 Verwerkingsopdracht "Cognitieve
9.6 A point on data protection ....................... 92
Interviews" ........................................................ 111
Thema 6: Cognitieve Interviews ................................ 93
Algemene verordering gegevensbescherming .. 111
6.1 De theorie van cognitieve interviews ................ 93
6.1.1 Verwerkingsopdracht "Sociale stress" ....... 96
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Samenvatting "PB1602181944-Onderzoekspracticum Kwalitatief onderzoek" | juni 2019 | Jasper Verkroost 3
, Thema 1: De theorie van kwalitatief onderzoek
1.1 Theoretische inbedding
1. The Foundations of Qualitative Research
1.1 The nature of qualitative research p. 2-4
qualitative research (QR)
- a set of interpretive, material practices that make the world visible; these practices transform
the world; they turn the world into a series of representations, including fieldnotes,
interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings and memos to self; qualitative researchers
study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of or interpret phenomena in
terms of the meaning people bring to them (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011)
- is concerned with 'what', 'why', and 'how' questions rather than 'how many'
- uses specific data-generation methods, such as observational methods, semi-structured and
in-depth interviews, and focus groups
- hypotheses are commonly generated from analysis of data rather than stated at the outset
common characteristics of QR
- aims and objectives that are directed at providing an in-depth and interpreted understanding
of the social world of research participants by learning about the sense they make of their
social and material circumstances, their experiences, perspectives, and histories
- the use of non-standardised, adaptable methods of data generation that are sensitive to the
social context of the study and can be adapted for each participant or case to allow the
exploration of emergent issues
- data that are detailed, rich and complex; the precise depth and complexity of data may vary
- analysis that retains complexity and nuance and respects the uniqueness of each participant
or case as well as recurrent, cross-cutting themes
- openness to emergent categories and theories at the analysis and interpretation stage
- outputs that include detailed descriptions of the phenomena being researched, grounded in
the perspectives and accounts of participants
- a reflexive approach, where the role and perspective of the researcher in the research process
is acknowledged; for some researchers, reflexivity also means reporting their personal
experiences 'in the field'
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Samenvatting "PB1602181944-Onderzoekspracticum Kwalitatief onderzoek" | juni 2019 | Jasper Verkroost 4
, 1.2 Key philosophical issues in social research p. 4-8
ontology
- concerned with the nature of reality and what there is to know about the world
- key questions concern whether or not there is a social reality that exists independently of
human conceptions and interpretations and, closely related to this, whether there is a shared
social reality or only multiple, context-specific ones
- social science has been shaped by two overarching ontological positions: realism and idealism
realism
- based on the idea that there is an external reality which exists independently of people's
beliefs about or understanding of it; there is a distinction between the way the world is, and
the meaning and interpretation of that world held by individuals
naive realism reality can be observed directly and accurately
(shallow realism)
cautions realism reality can be known approximately or imperfectly rather than accurately
depth realism (critical reality consists of different levels:
or transcendental - empirical domain: is made up of what we experience through our senses
realism) - actual domain: exists regardless of whether or not is it observed
- real domain: refers to underlying processes and mechanisms
subtle realism an external reality exists but is only known through the human mind and socially
constructed meanings
materialism variant of realism which recognises only material features, such as economic relations,
or physical features of the world as holding reality; values, beliefs or experiences are
epiphenomena (features that arises from, but do not shape, the material world)
idealism
- asserts that reality is fundamentally mind-dependent: it is only knowable through the human
mind and through socially constructed meanings, and no reality exists independently of these
subtle or contextual the social world is made up of representations constructed and shared by people in
or collective idealism particular contexts
relativism or radical there is no shared social reality, only a series of (individual) constructions
idealism
social vs. physical worlds
- some early commentators believed that the social world was similar to the physical world and
was governed by universal, causal laws
- however, it has been argued that the two are very different, and that any regularities
identified by social enquiry cannot be governed by immutable laws, because human beings
have agency and therefore have choice about what they do
- many contemporary qualitative researchers would share this latter view, rejecting the idea
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Samenvatting "PB1602181944-Onderzoekspracticum Kwalitatief onderzoek" | juni 2019 | Jasper Verkroost 5
, that fixed 'laws' governing the social world exist or could be identified
epistemology
- concerned with ways of knowing and learning about the world; focuses on issues such as how
we can learn about reality and what forms the basis of our knowledge; key issues:
- 1. the way in which knowledge is best acquired (induction vs. deduction); while qualitative
research is often depicted as an inductive process, this is a rather misleading simplification
- 2. the relationship between the researcher and the researched and how this influences the
connection between 'facts' and 'values' (independent vs. interactive relationship)
- 3. the meaning of accepting particular claims as accurate or 'true' (correspondence vs.
intersubjective/coherence vs. pragmatic theory of truth)
epistemological positions
inductive logic involves building knowledge from the bottom up through observations of the world,
which in turn provide the basis for developing theories of laws
deductive logic a top-down approach to knowledge; starts with a theory from which a hypothesis is
derived and applied to observations about the world; the hypothesis will then be
confirmed or rejected, thereby strengthening or weakening the theory
retroductive logic involves the researcher identifying the structures or mechanisms that may have
produced patterns in the data, trying different models for 'fit' (Blaikie, 2007)
abductive logic involves 'abducting' a technical account, using the researchers' categories, from
participants' own accounts of everyday activities, ideas or beliefs (Blaikie, 2007)
other epistemological concepts
foundational vs. a foundational model of research-based knowledge assumes it is possible to mirror
fallibilistic models 'reality' accurately; a fallibilistic model treats all knowledge claims as provisional
knowledge as 'value- holds that all knowledge is affected by the values of the person who produces/receives
mediated' it
correspondence a statement is true if it matches independent reality (a position often associated with
theory of truth realism)
coherence theory of an account is true as a representation of the (social constructed) world if it is supported
truth by several other accounts; if different accounts cohere with each other
pragmatic theory of beliefs are true if they have practical utility; if believing them is useful, helpful and
truth productive to people
1.3 Positivism and the scientific method p. 8-11
early positivist thinking
- René Descartes (1637, Discourse on Methodology): focused on the importance of objectivity
and evidence in the search for truth; a key idea was that researchers should attempt to
distance themselves from any influences that might corrupt their analytical capacity
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Samenvatting "PB1602181944-Onderzoekspracticum Kwalitatief onderzoek" | juni 2019 | Jasper Verkroost 6
,- Isaac Newton, Francis Beacon: knowledge about the world can be acquired through direct
observation rather than deduced from abstract propositions
- David Hume (1711-1776): associated with the founding of the empirical research tradition;
suggested that all knowledge about the world originates in our experiences and is derived
through the senses; basing evidence on direct observation and collecting it in an objective and
unbiased way became key tenets of empirical research
- Auguste Comte (1798-1857): is considered the founding father of of sociology and architect of
positivism; asserted that the social world could and should be studied in much the same way
as the natural world, based on direct observations from which universal and invariant laws of
human behaviour could be identified
post-positivism, post-empiricism (Karl Popper, 1930s-1940s)
- criticised the idea that general laws could be derived from observations on the grounds that it
was always possible that a future observation might prove and exception to the rule
- argued for a deductive approach in which hypotheses were first derived from theory and then
tested empirically
- although Popper advocated the use of falsification so that (null) hypotheses were set up in the
hope that they would be rejected, many researchers devise hypotheses setting out
relationships they expect to be confirmed
positivism/empiricism vs. post-positivism, post-empiricism, falsificationism
positivism/empiricism post-positivism, post-empiricism, falsificationism
knowledge is produced through the senses based on knowledge of the world is produced through testing
careful observation propositions: hypotheses about casual relationships
are derived from scientific theories and then
evaluated empirically against observations
regularities and 'constant conjunctions' are identified -
inductive reasoning is used after data collection to deductive reasoning is used to postulate possible
generalise from empirical instances to general laws relationships and models before data are collected
reality is unaffected by the research process, reality is unaffected by the research process, facts and
facts/values are separate, objective value-free inquiry values are separate, objective value-free inquiry is
is possible possible
the methods used in the natural sciences are the methods used in the natural sciences are
appropriate for studying the social world appropriate for studying in the social world
reality can be known accurately (knowledge is reality can be known approximately, hypotheses can
foundational, correspondence theory of truth) be rejected or provisionally confirmed, but not
definitively proved to be true (knowledge is
provisional and fallibilistic, coherence theory of truth)
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Samenvatting "PB1602181944-Onderzoekspracticum Kwalitatief onderzoek" | juni 2019 | Jasper Verkroost 7
, 1.4 Key developments and traditions in qualitative research p. 11-19
interpretism and the origins of QR
- Immanuel Kant (Critique of Pure Reason, 1871): knowledge of the world is based on
'understanding' which arises from reflecting on what happens, not just from having had
particular experiences; knowledge and knowing therefore transcend basic empirical enquiry
- Wilhelm Dilthey (1860s-1870s): emphasised the importance of 'understanding' and of studying
people's 'life experiences' which occur within a particular historical and social context
- Max Weber (1864-1920): tried to build a bridge between interpretivist and positivist
approaches; proposed two types of understanding: direct observational understanding:
purpose is to produce law-like propositions; explanatory/motivational understanding: the
purpose is to understand subjectively meaningful experiences
interpretivism vs. constructionism
- interpretivism: stresses the importance of interpretation as well as observation in
understanding the social world; has been seen as integral to the qualitative tradition
- constructionism: emphasises that knowledge is actively 'constructed' by human beings, rather
than being passively received by them
- both approaches reject the idea of 'value neutral' observations and universal laws, and both
focus on understanding lived experience from the points of view of those who hold it
interpretivism and constructionism
knowledge is produced by exploring and understanding the social world of the people being studied, focusing
on their meanings and interpretations (social constructionist traditions emphasise the socially constructed
nature of those meanings)
researchers also construct meanings and interpretations based on those of participants
the research process is considered to be largely inductive in the sense that interpretation is grounded in the
data, though it is also recognised that observations are 'theory-laden' because they are mediated by ideas and
assumptions
reality is affected by the research process, facts and values are not distinct, and objective value-free research is
impossible; some researchers may aim to be transparent about their assumptions and attempt to adopt a
neutral position; others embrace subjectivity and become more personally engaged in research
the methods used in the natural sciences are not appropriate for studying the social world because the social
world is not governed by law-like regularities; it is mediated through meaning and human agency
social reality cannot be captured or portrayed 'accurately' because there are different (and possibly competing)
perceptions and understandings, though some researchers still aim to 'represent' participants' meanings as
faithfully as possible (knowledge is provisional and fallibilistic, consensus theory of truth)
advancement and diversification of QR
QR in sociology
- etnography: involves understanding the social world or culture (the shared behaviours, beliefs
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Samenvatting "PB1602181944-Onderzoekspracticum Kwalitatief onderzoek" | juni 2019 | Jasper Verkroost 8
, and values) of particular groups, typically via immersion in their community
- phenomenology: describes the meaning people attach to a particular phenomenon; led to the
development of ethnomethodology
- ethnomethodology: the study of how, in practice, people construct social order and make
sense of the social world; related movements:
- conversation analysis: analysing the way in which talk is structured
- discourse analysis: focusing on the way knowledge is produced within different discourses
- symbolic interaction: focused on the interactions between people and the symbolic meanings
and interpretations people attach to their social actions and environments as means of
understanding human behaviour; led to the development of grounded theory
- grounded theory: aims to generate theories that explain social processes or actions through
analysis of data from participants who have experienced them; argues that that the usual
cannons of 'good science' should be retained but that they should be redefined to fit a
qualitative approach
QR in psychology
- came much later than in sociology because of the disciplinary emphasis placed on scientific
enquiry and the use of experimental methods
- personal construct theory: the study of psychological constructs that people use to define and
attach meaning to their thinking and behaviour
- ethogenetics: concerned with the roles and rules through which people choose (not) to act
- protocol analysis: explores the 'thinking' processes that are manifest when people are
engaged in cognitive tasks
- interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA): is concerned with capturing people's accounts
and reflections to explore and interpret the meanings attached and the 'sense' that is made of
them; plays an increasingly central role in psychological QR
post modernism (including post-structuralism, deconstructionism)
- characterised by a deep scepticism and suspicion of scientific attempts to provide objective
explanations of reality; question 'modern' ideas that: (1) there is an objective reality
independent of human being; (2) we can 'know' things with certainty, or that it is possible to
develop general laws that explain many aspects of the social world; (3) language refers to and
represent a reality outside of itself
- results in the assertion that there are no fixed or overarching meanings, because all meanings
are a product of time and place
- its emphasis on setting knowledge claims 'within' the conditions of the world today and in the
multiple perspectives of class, race, gender and other group affiliations' links it with the range
of perspectives associated with critical theory
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Samenvatting "PB1602181944-Onderzoekspracticum Kwalitatief onderzoek" | juni 2019 | Jasper Verkroost 9
, critical theory
- is concerned with empowering people to overcome social circumstances that constrain them
- tends to be used as an umbrella term covering various more specific research movements,
drawing on theories including neo-Marxism and subsequently, feminism, social models of
disability, critical race theory, and 'queer theory', each of which maintain that social and
cultural factors have a major influence on people's lives
- within these approaches, research findings tend to be analysed primarily according to the
concepts of race, class, gender, disability or sexual orientation rather than the analysis being
open to whatever concepts emerge from the data
- has also influenced a call for greater equality between researcher and research participants;
one example of this was the development of participatory (action) research
narrative and biographical methods
- focus on individuals' stories, often as a way of studying wider topics and concepts
- the growth in the use of narrative is partly to provide greater understanding of phenomena in
the context of people's own accounts of their personal development and histories, but also
because of the challenges of 'user-led' investigations
Digitale werkboek
ontologisch uitgangspunt: realisme
- wij nemen aan dat er een objectieve realiteit bestaat, die waargenomen en geïnterpreteerd
kan worden; bij deze waarneming is er altijd een 'meetfout': waarneming is nooit perfect
- hoe accuraat waarnemingen zijn, hangt onder andere af van waarmee wordt waargenomen
- mensen interpreteren hun waarneming, wat bias (verstoring) introduceert; die interpretatie is
een gevolg van iemands herinneringen en de manier waarop mensen informatie verwerken,
en verschilt dus vaak van persoon tot persoon
- binnen deze opleiding zien we het feit dat betekenis, kennis, gevoelens, en overwegingen het
gevolg zijn van interpretatie niet als indicatie dat deze niet bestaan in een objectieve realiteit;
we beschouwen kwalitatief onderzoek als een waardevol instrument om zowel betekenissen
en gevoelens van mensen als hun waarnemingen en interpretaties te onderzoeken
epistemologisch uitgangspunt: correspondentie en fallibilisme
- uit ons uitgangspunt dat een objectieve realiteit bestaat, volgt dat waarheid wordt
gedefinieerd als de mate waarin een uitspraak in lijn is met die objectieve realiteit
- tegelijkertijd erkennen we dat de realiteit zo complex en variabel is, dat uitspraken zoals we
die meestal tegenkomen waarschijnlijk nooit volledig 'waar' zijn
- we staan binnen deze opleiding empathische neutraliteit voor, wat zich vertaalt naar de
noodzaak om transparant en expliciet te zijn over eventuele biases en ernaar te streven zo
neutraal en objectief mogelijk te blijven
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Samenvatting "PB1602181944-Onderzoekspracticum Kwalitatief onderzoek" | juni 2019 | Jasper Verkroost 10
