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Full summary history of biology
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- Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen (RU)
Full summary for the course history of biology (NWI-BB028B) given in 2023 - Radboud University, Nijmegen
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History of BiologyChen Chen – Radboud University – 1049723
Introduction
In order to properly study and understand the history of biology, we have to start with a short
introduction. The reason why we study the history of biology – and history in general – is because we
can learn from those mistakes we have make. The history explains who we are, it explains our
identity. It also causes us to focus on our problems, what we should focus on and what we can
expect. On op of this, it also gives us an insight in the things we have forgotten, such as valuable
information or old skills.
The problems with textbook history are that the heroes Presentism: uncritical adherence to
are selective and it portrays those that were wrong present-day attitudes, especially the
poorly; the societal context is largely ignored and is often tendency to interpret past events in
written for present purposes instead of in a historical terms of modern values and
setting. It is a story of progress, with us at the top. concepts.
We have different ways to write history. We can write the history of scientific thinking, which
focusses on the big thinkers, the big theories and discoveries. We can write the history of scientific
institutions, focussing on the organizing of science (e.g. academies, libraries, financial support and
patronage). We can also write intellectual history, in which we look at science in relation to culture,
world views, art and religion. At last, we can write about the social history of science, in which we
focus on science’s involvement in practices (e.g. trade and applications).
The Beginning of Science
Depending on who you ask, Aristotle could be considered our first biologist, our hero. He made
empirical observations, classifying 500 species, studied embryos, performed animal dissections and
listened to the stories of fishers, farmers and hunters. He also contributed to theories, such as the
theory on the essence of an organism, to explain its functions. Many great scientists that came after
Aristotle praised him, but often for different qualities: sometimes his theory was praised, sometimes
his observations were praised. This often depended on the scientist praising him. In short, Aristotle is
a philosopher, biologist, naturalist; a prime example of empirical biology and Greek reason. He also
serves as an example between empirical observation and theory.
However, Aristotle was not quite the first. In the first millennium BC, China already used herbs for
medicine. They were advanced in mathematics, astronomy and technology, allowing them to
produce paper in the 2nd C, gunpowder in the 9th C and even the compass in the 11th C. We can also
start looking at Mesopotamia. They had large scale agriculture at 5000 BC and by 2500 BC they knew
of astronomy and used an abacus. Egypt also started mummification from 3300 BC onward.
Viewed from our culture, Aristotle is very important. He was the source and authority figure until the
17th C, is used as a constant reference in philosophy and was “revived” with the rise of the classics in
the 19th C. This means that – depending on what is considered crucial to biology – the beginning can
be very different.
,The Start
When we start from the Greeks, with Aristotle, we also have to look at the effect that Alexander the
Great had on the world. Alexander the Great was one of Aristotle’s students and went on to conquer
a large part of the world. After his early death, he left no heirs to his empire, causing it to be divided
among his three generals.
Ptolemaeus Soter (3th C BC) ruled Egypt from Alexandria. Alexandria became a great support for
science, with its library in the house of the muses containing 500k – 700k books. It also had the
legendary Pharos lighthouse, which went on to become an architectural wonder to support trade. It
also contributed to medical knowledge regarding anatomy, dissections and even vivisections. Hypatia
was one of the scientist-philosophers in Alexandria. She contributed to mathematics, astronomy and
literature; and was one of the few women in science during that period. In the 5th C, a Christian mob
accused her of witchcraft and killed her. She is used as a symbol of emancipation, an example for
women in science. She has been portrayed as the tragic, erotic witch by the Romantics, a victim of
barbaric abuse and also an emancipated freethinking, the defender of freedom against intolerance.
After Alexander, the centre shifts from Greece to the Hellenic Middle East, with the metropolis
Alexandria. In 30 BC, Egypt was incorporated into the Roman Empire, after the death of Cleopatra.
The Alexandrian knowledge spreads through the Roman empire, with Rome as its metropolis.
Roman scholars emphasized practical knowledge over theoretical systems and inventoried the
Hellenic Knowledge. Galen, a doctor/philosopher was educated in Pergamon and Alexandria. He
became the doctor of the gladiators in Pergamon, followed by his career as emperor doctor and
Roman army doctor. The problem with his knowledge was that it was unacceptable to dissect human
bodies for religious reasons. In order to still gain knowledge on anatomy, he looked through the
wounds of gladiators and dissected monkeys and pigs. He remained the medical authority until
Vesalius took over in the 16th C.
After the fall of Rome and the decline of Alexandria, the scientific centre shifts to the Greek-speaking
Byzantine Empire, with Constantinople as its metropolis. Greece’s culture was supported by studying
(e.g. Aristotle’s school called the Lyceum). The Lyceum was later on plundered under the Roman
occupation, but survived when they took over. The last philosophy schools in Greece were shut down
due to the Church in the 4th – 5th C. The library of Alexandria was burnt. All this caused the decline of
the Hellenic heritage. However, Galen’s work was preserved and expanded on in the Byzantine
Empire. It was even translated into Arabic and elaborated in the 7th – 8th C in Syria.
The centre then shifts to the Islamic empire, with Damascus (Syria) as its metropolis due to the Greek
knowledge being translated to Arabic. There, they mainly continued on the basis of Greek texts:
experimental optics, astronomy, anatomy, medicine, etc. However, during this time, Europe entered
a stage of less scientific interest. This can easily be seen by the amount of books they had, compared
to the amount they had when the Roman empire had the power. However, there were glimmers of
hope such as the establishment of the first universities (mostly for theology and philosophy) and the
increase in religious places such as monasteries and cathedrals. This indicates that theology did
inspire science: God might not intervene but he created the laws; this caused the idea of the laws of
nature and the individual responsibility.
During the 11th – 13th C, the Crusades happened: Christian armies fight the Islamic army to conquer
Jerusalem. This put the almost illiterate fanatics of the West against the rather refined culture with
advanced knowledge of the Islamic world. The real cultural exchange only started after the violent
crusades.
, After this, the centre returned to Italy, with hesitant translations of texts into latin, which were
accelerated from the 15th/16th century. This exchange often happened through Al Andalus.
In short, the Greek knowledge was passed from Greece to Alexandria, to the Roman Empire. There, it
is passed on via the Byzantine Empire to the Islamic world (Damascus), where it is expanded and
annotated. This knowledge is passed on to Northern Italy in the early Renaissance in the 14th C via Al
Andalus.
The Renaissance
The Renaissance starts in Europe in the 14th C and lasts until the 17th C. It is marked by the rebirth of
the classical world in art, philosophy and science. One of the features is the glorification of the classic
Greek sources. It often caused tension between the revered tradition and doubt: reading the classics,
the start of new investigations and also your own observations as they often did not match (e.g.
Galen’s work).
From the first half of the 16th C on, classical authority could be questions. This was due to the
expansion on botany (for practical application), more empirical detail in anatomy, more empirical
zoology and the first elements of experiments. During the Renaissance, many important people arise:
Leonardo da Vinci, Paracelsus and Andreas Vesalius.
Leonardo is the stereotype of the homo universalis: he Heretic: contrary to belief or the
was a painter, sculptor, engineer, astronomer, established teachings.
anatomist, etc. He performed dissections in secret and
often got in trouble for this: his science was considered heretic and therefore had little influence.
Paracelsus was a Swiss doctor, botanist and alchemist. He became interested in poison and is
considered the founding father of toxicology. He did empirical research (analysis of zinc and
discovery of laudanum). He was also one of the few that attacked tradition by burning Galen’s books.
Andreas Vesalius was educated in Padua, where he conducted public dissections while not reading
from Galen. This showed the limitations of Galen’s anatomy (which was based on monkeys). The
constant lack of bodies caused him to steal corpses from the gallows. Later on, he became the
physician of kings Charles V and Philips II of Spain, gaining patronage from them.
Despite the giant errors made by Galen, he remained an authority for a long time. This is due to his
authority remaining unquestioned, the fact that obtaining bodies was hard and that the deviations
were often blamed on it being a deformity (refer to the glorification of the Greeks). On top of this,
dissections were conducted by the assistants while the professor would read from Galen.
Renaissance episodes also happened beyond Europe. An example of this is the increased cultural
exchange of books and ideas via new trade routes.
The Scientific Revolution
The Scientific Revolution is marked by the many, large breakthroughs that happened in the 17th C
(during the Renaissance). Examples of these are astronomy (Galileo), physics (Newton and Huygens),
experiments (Hooke and Boyle) and maths (Newton and Descartes). With this, new institutions came
to place in Europe: academies of gentlemen scientists (e.g. Royal Society, England and Academie
Royale des Sciences, France). Crucial characteristics of the Scientific Revolution are the allowance of
scepticism, the start of experimental practices, mathematisation and the acceleration of discoveries.
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